Cognitive and Language Development Milestones Picture Book<\/h2>\n[WLO: 1] [CLO: 1]<\/h3>\n
Prior to beginning work on this assignment,\u00a0<\/p>\n
The purpose of this assignment is to creatively demonstrate an understanding of developmental milestones as they pertain to cognition and language development.<\/p>\n
Part 1:<\/strong> Based on the required resources above, create a children\u2019s picture book using StoryJumper\u00a0(Links to an external site.)<\/a> that tells a story about a child\u2019s typical day. Your story must incorporate at least four cognitive and four language development milestones for the age-group you have selected. Your story can be about a fictional child or can be based on a real child. Watch the video, StoryJumper Tutorial\u00a0(Links to an external site.)<\/a>, for Helpance in using StoryJumper.<\/p>\n To complete this assignment, you must<\/p>\n Part 2:<\/strong> Open the Cognitive and Language Development Milestones Picture Book Template<\/a> and complete the following items:<\/p>\n The Cognitive and Language Development Milestones Picture Book:<\/p>\n CHAPTER 6 SUMMARY<\/p>\n Piaget\u2019s Cognitive-Developmental Theory (p. 226)<\/strong><\/p>\n According to Piaget, how does cognition develop?<\/strong><\/em><\/p>\n \u25a0 Piaget\u2019s constructivist approach<\/strong> assumes that children \u00a0discover knowledge through their own activity, moving through four \u00a0invariant, universal stages. According to Piaget, newborn infants have \u00a0little in the way of built-in structures; only at the end of the second \u00a0year are they capable of a cognitive approach to the world through mental representations<\/strong>.<\/p>\n \u25a0 In Piaget\u2019s theory, psychological structures, or schemes<\/strong>, change with age in two ways: through adaptation<\/strong>, which consists of two complementary activities\u2014assimilation<\/strong> and accommodation<\/strong>; and through organization<\/strong>, the internal rearrangement of schemes to form a strongly interconnected cognitive system. Equilibration<\/strong> describes the changing balance of assimilation and accommodation that gradually leads to more effective schemes.<\/p>\n The Sensorimotor Stage: Birth to 2 Years (p. 228)<\/strong><\/p>\n Describe major cognitive attainments of Piaget\u2019s sensorimotor stage.<\/strong><\/em><\/p>\n \u25a0 In the sensorimotor stage<\/strong>, the circular reaction<\/strong> \u00a0provides a means of adapting first schemes, and the newborn baby\u2019s \u00a0reflexes transform into the older infant\u2019s more flexible action \u00a0patterns. Eight- to 12-month-olds develop intentional<\/strong>, or goal-directed, behavior<\/strong> and begin to master object permanence<\/strong>. Twelve- to 18-month-olds become better problem solvers and no longer make the A-not-B search error<\/strong>. \u00a0Between 18 and 24 months, mental representation is evident in sudden \u00a0solutions to problems, mastery of object permanence tasks involving \u00a0invisible displacement, deferred imitation<\/strong>, and make-believe play<\/strong>.<\/p>\n What does follow-up research reveal about infant cognitive development and the accuracy of Piaget\u2019s sensorimotor stage?<\/strong><\/em><\/p>\n \u25a0 Many studies suggest that infants display various understandings \u00a0earlier than Piaget believed. Some awareness of object permanence, as \u00a0revealed by the violation-of-expectation method<\/strong>, may be evident \u00a0in the first few months, although searching for hidden objects is a true \u00a0cognitive advance. Young infants also display deferred imitation, \u00a0categorization, and analogical problem solving<\/strong>, and toddlers imitate rationally, by inferring others\u2019 intentions\u2014attainments that require mental representation.<\/p>\n \u25a0 Displaced reference<\/strong>\u2014the realization that words can be used \u00a0to cue mental images of things not physically present\u2014is a major \u00a0symbolic advance that occurs around the first birthday. The capacity to \u00a0use language to modify mental representations improves from the end of \u00a0the second into the third year. By the middle of the second year, \u00a0toddlers treat realistic-looking pictures symbolically.<\/p>\n \u25a0 Today, most researchers believe that newborns have more built-in \u00a0cognitive equipment for making sense of experience than Piaget assumed, \u00a0although they disagree on how much initial understanding infants have.<\/p>\n The Preoperational Stage: 2 to 7 Years (p. 239)<\/strong><\/p>\n Describe advances in mental representation and cognitive limitations during the preoperational stage.<\/strong><\/em><\/p>\n \u25a0 Rapid advances in mental representation\u2014notably, language, make-believe play, and drawing\u2014occur during Piaget\u2019s preoperational stage<\/strong>. With age, make-believe becomes increasingly complex, evident in sociodramatic play<\/strong>. Children\u2019s drawings increase in complexity and realism.<\/p>\n \u25a0 Dual representation<\/strong> improves during the third year as \u00a0children realize that photographs, drawings, models, and simple maps \u00a0correspond to circumstances in the real world.<\/p>\n \u25a0 Piaget described preschoolers as not yet capable of operations<\/strong>. Because egocentrism<\/strong> prevents children from accommodating, it contributes to animistic thinking, centration<\/strong>, and lack of reversibility<\/strong>\u2014difficulties that cause preschoolers to fail conservation<\/strong> and hierarchical classification<\/strong> tasks.<\/p>\n What does follow-up research reveal about preschoolers\u2019 cognitive development and the accuracy of Piaget\u2019s preoperational stage?<\/strong><\/em><\/p>\n \u25a0 When preschoolers are given familiar and simplified problems, \u00a0their performance is more mature than Piaget assumed. They recognize \u00a0differing perspectives, appreciate that animals (but not inanimate \u00a0objects) have biological properties, have flexible and appropriate \u00a0notions of magic, and reason about transformations and cause-and-effect \u00a0relations.<\/p>\n \u25a0 Preschoolers also show impressive skill at categorizing on the \u00a0basis of nonobservable characteristics, revealing that their thinking is \u00a0not dominated by appearances. Rather than being absent in the preschool \u00a0years, operational thinking develops gradually.<\/p>\n The Concrete Operational Stage: 7 to 11 Years (p. 249)<\/strong><\/p>\n What are the major characteristics of Piaget\u2019s concrete operational stage?<\/strong><\/em><\/p>\n \u25a0 During the concrete operational stage<\/strong>, thought becomes \u00a0more logical, flexible, and organized. Mastery of conservation requires \u00a0decentration and reversibility. Children also become proficient at \u00a0hierarchical classification and seriation<\/strong>, including transitive inference<\/strong>. Spatial reasoning improves, as indicated by children\u2019s cognitive maps<\/strong>.<\/p>\n \u25a0 Concrete operational thought is limited in that children have \u00a0difficulty reasoning about abstract ideas. Mastery of Piaget\u2019s concrete \u00a0operational tasks takes place gradually.<\/p>\n Discuss follow-up research on concrete operational thought.<\/strong><\/em><\/p>\n \u25a0 Cultural practices and schooling affect children\u2019s mastery of \u00a0Piagetian tasks. Concrete operations are heavily influenced by training, \u00a0context, and cultural conditions.<\/p>\n The Formal Operational Stage: 11 Years and Older (p. 253)<\/strong><\/p>\n Describe major characteristics of the formal operational stage and typical consequences of adolescents\u2019 advancing cognition.<\/strong><\/em><\/p>\n \u25a0 In Piaget\u2019s formal operational stage<\/strong>, adolescents become capable of hypothetico-deductive reasoning<\/strong>. \u00a0When faced with a problem, they start with a hypothesis about variables \u00a0that might affect an outcome; deduce logical, testable inferences; and \u00a0systematically isolate and combine variables to see which inferences are \u00a0confirmed.<\/p>\n \u25a0 Adolescents also develop propositional thought<\/strong>\u2014the ability to evaluate the logic of verbal statements without referring to real-world circumstances.<\/p>\n \u25a0 As adolescents reflect on their own thoughts, two distorted images of the relationship between self and other appear: the imaginary audience<\/strong> and the personal fable<\/strong>. Both result from gains in perspective taking.<\/p>\n \u25a0 Adolescents\u2019 capacity to think about possibilities prompts \u00a0idealistic visions at odds with everyday reality, and they often become \u00a0fault-finding critics.<\/p>\n \u25a0 Compared with adults, adolescents are less effective at decision \u00a0making. They take greater risks under emotionally charged conditions, \u00a0less often weigh alternatives, and more often fall back on well-learned \u00a0intuitive judgments.<\/p>\n What does follow-up research reveal about formal operational thought?<\/strong><\/em><\/p>\n \u25a0 On tasks requiring hypothetico-deductive reasoning, school-age \u00a0children cannot evaluate evidence that bears on three or more variables \u00a0at once. They also do not grasp the logical necessity<\/strong> of propositional thought.<\/p>\n \u25a0 Adolescents and adults are most likely to think abstractly and \u00a0systematically in situations in which they have had extensive guidance \u00a0and practice in using such reasoning. Individuals in tribal and village \u00a0societies rarely do well on tasks typically used to assess formal \u00a0operational reasoning. Learning activities in school provide adolescents \u00a0with rich opportunities to acquire formal operations.<\/p>\n Piaget and Education (p. 259)<\/strong><\/p>\n Describe educational implications of Piaget\u2019s theory.<\/strong><\/em><\/p>\n \u25a0 A Piagetian classroom promotes discovery learning, sensitivity to \u00a0children\u2019s readiness to learn, and acceptance of individual \u00a0differences.<\/p>\n Overall Assessment of Piaget\u2019s Theory (p. 260)<\/strong><\/p>\n Summarize contributions and shortcomings of Piaget\u2019s theory.<\/strong><\/em><\/p>\n \u25a0 Piaget emphasized children\u2019s active contributions to their own \u00a0development, inspired the contemporary focus on mechanisms of cognitive \u00a0change, and provided a useful \u201croad map\u201d of cognitive development. \u00a0However, he offered only a vague account of how cognition changes. \u00a0Children\u2019s cognitive attainments are less coherent and more gradual than \u00a0Piaget\u2019s stages indicate.<\/p>\n \u25a0 Some researchers reject Piaget\u2019s stages while retaining his view \u00a0of cognitive development as an active, constructive process. Others \u00a0support a less tightly knit stage concept. Still others deny both \u00a0Piaget\u2019s stages and his belief in the existence of general reasoning \u00a0abilities.<\/p>\n The Core Knowledge Perspective (p. 261)<\/strong><\/p>\n Explain the core knowledge perspective on cognitive development, noting research that supports its assumptions.<\/strong><\/em><\/p>\n \u25a0 According to the core knowledge perspective<\/strong>, infants are \u00a0innately equipped with core domains of thought that support rapid \u00a0cognitive development. Each core domain is essential for survival and \u00a0develops independently, resulting in uneven, domain-specific changes. \u00a0Violation-of-expectation research suggests that young infants have \u00a0impressive physical and numerical knowledge.<\/p>\n \u25a0 The theory theory<\/strong> regards children as na\u00efve theorists who \u00a0draw on innate concepts to explain their everyday experiences and then \u00a0test their theory, revising it to account for new information. In \u00a0support of this view, children reason about everyday events in ways \u00a0consistent with the event\u2019s core domain. Physical and psychological \u00a0explanations emerge earlier than biological explanations, suggesting \u00a0that biological knowledge may have little or no innate foundation.<\/p>\n What are the strengths and limitations of the core knowledge perspective?<\/strong><\/em><\/p>\n \u25a0 Core knowledge researchers are testing intriguing ideas about why \u00a0certain cognitive skills emerge early and develop rapidly. But critics \u00a0believe that violation-of-expectation studies are not adequate to show \u00a0that infants are endowed with knowledge. The core knowledge perspective \u00a0has not offered clarity on how cognition changes.<\/p>\n Vygotsky\u2019s Sociocultural Theory (p. 266)<\/strong><\/p>\n Explain Vygotsky\u2019s view of cognitive development, noting the importance of social experience and language.<\/strong><\/em><\/p>\n \u25a0 Vygotsky viewed human cognition as inherently social and saw \u00a0language as the foundation for all higher cognitive processes. According \u00a0to Vygotsky, private speech<\/strong>, or language used for self-guidance, \u00a0emerges out of social communication as adults and more skilled peers \u00a0help children master challenging tasks within their zone of proximal development<\/strong>. Eventually, private speech is internalized as inner, verbal thought.<\/p>\n \u25a0 Intersubjectivity<\/strong> and scaffolding<\/strong> are two features of social interaction that promote transfer of cognitive processes to children. Guided participation<\/strong> recognizes cultural and situational variations in adult support of children\u2019s efforts.<\/p>\n According to Vygotsky, what is the role of make-believe play in cognitive development?<\/strong><\/em><\/p>\n \u25a0 Vygotsky viewed make-believe play as a unique, broadly \u00a0influential zone of proximal development in which children learn to act \u00a0in accord with internal ideas rather than on impulse.<\/p>\n Vygotsky and Education (p. 269)<\/strong><\/p>\n Describe educational implications of Vygotsky\u2019s theory.<\/strong><\/em><\/p>\n \u25a0 A Vygotskian classroom emphasizes Helped discovery through \u00a0teachers\u2019 guidance and peer collaboration. When formal schooling begins, \u00a0literacy activities prompt children to shift to a higher level of \u00a0cognitive activity, in which they proficiently manipulate and control \u00a0their culture\u2019s symbol systems.<\/p>\n \u25a0 Vygotsky-based educational innovations include reciprocal teaching<\/strong> and cooperative learning<\/strong>, in which multiple partners stimulate and encourage one another.<\/p>\n Assessment of Vygotsky\u2019s Theory (p. 272)<\/strong><\/p>\n Cite strengths and limitations of Vygotsky\u2019s theory.<\/strong><\/em><\/p>\n \u25a0 Vygotsky\u2019s theory helps us understand wide cultural variation in \u00a0cognitive skills and underscores the vital role of teaching in cognitive \u00a0development. But in some cultures, verbal dialogues are not the only or \u00a0most important means through which children learn. Vygotsky said little \u00a0about biological contributions to cognition and about how children \u00a0internalize social experiences to advance their thinking.<\/p>\n CHPATER 7 SUMMARY<\/strong><\/p>\n The\u00a0Information-Processing\u00a0Approach<\/strong> (p.\u00a0278)<\/strong><\/p>\n \u25a0\u00a0Information-processing\u00a0theorists\u00a0view\u00a0the\u00a0mind\u00a0as\u00a0a\u00a0complex,symbol-manipulating\u00a0system\u00a0through\u00a0which\u00a0information\u00a0flows,much\u00a0like\u00a0a\u00a0computer.\u00a0Researchers\u00a0use\u00a0computer-like\u00a0diagramsand\u00a0flowcharts\u00a0to\u00a0analyze\u00a0thinking\u00a0into\u00a0its\u00a0components,\u00a0mappingthe\u00a0precise\u00a0steps\u00a0involved\u00a0in\u00a0thinking\u00a0about\u00a0a\u00a0task\u00a0or\u00a0problem.<\/p>\n A\u00a0General\u00a0Model\u00a0of\u00a0Information\u00a0Processing<\/strong> (p.\u00a0278)<\/strong><\/p>\n Describe\u00a0the\u00a0store\u00a0model\u00a0of\u00a0the\u00a0human\u00a0information\u00a0processingsystem,\u00a0noting\u00a0implications\u00a0for\u00a0cognitive\u00a0development\u00a0and\u00a0relatedfindings.<\/strong><\/em><\/p>\n \u25a0\u00a0We\u00a0hold,\u00a0or\u00a0store,\u00a0information\u00a0in\u00a0three\u00a0parts\u00a0of\u00a0the\u00a0mental\u00a0systemfor\u00a0processing.\u00a0The\u00a0sensory\u00a0register<\/strong>\u00a0takes\u00a0in\u00a0a\u00a0wide\u00a0panorama\u00a0ofinformation,\u00a0but\u00a0only\u00a0momentarily.\u00a0The\u00a0short-term\u00a0memorystore<\/strong>\u00a0retains\u00a0attended-to\u00a0information\u00a0briefly\u00a0so\u00a0we\u00a0can\u00a0activelymanipulate\u00a0it\u00a0in\u00a0working\u00a0memory<\/strong>\u00a0to\u00a0accomplish\u00a0our\u00a0goals.\u00a0The\u00a0central\u00a0executive<\/strong>\u00a0is\u00a0the\u00a0conscious,\u00a0reflective\u00a0part\u00a0of\u00a0the\u00a0system,directing\u00a0the\u00a0flow\u00a0of\u00a0information\u00a0and\u00a0implementing\u00a0basicprocedures\u00a0and\u00a0complex\u00a0strategies.\u00a0The\u00a0more\u00a0effectively\u00a0weprocess\u00a0information,\u00a0the\u00a0greater\u00a0the\u00a0likelihood\u00a0that\u00a0mentalactivities\u00a0will\u00a0become\u00a0automatic\u00a0processes<\/strong>\u00a0and\u00a0that\u00a0informationwill\u00a0transfer\u00a0to\u00a0long-term\u00a0memory,<\/strong>\u00a0our\u00a0limitless,\u00a0permanentknowledge\u00a0base.<\/p>\n \u25a0\u00a0The\u00a0store\u00a0model\u00a0suggests,\u00a0and\u00a0research\u00a0confirms,\u00a0that\u00a0severalaspects\u00a0of\u00a0the\u00a0cognitive\u00a0system\u00a0improve\u00a0with\u00a0age.\u00a0Working-memory\u00a0capacity\u00a0increases,\u00a0with\u00a0individual\u00a0differences\u00a0predictingintelligence\u00a0test\u00a0scores\u00a0and\u00a0academic\u00a0achievement.\u00a0Gains\u00a0inprocessing\u00a0speed\u00a0also\u00a0occur,\u00a0contributing\u00a0to\u00a0working-memoryresources.\u00a0Furthermore,\u00a0children\u00a0make\u00a0strides\u00a0in\u00a0executivefunction,<\/strong>\u00a0with\u00a0preschoolers\u00a0gaining\u00a0in\u00a0attention,\u00a0suppressingimpulses,\u00a0and\u00a0flexible\u00a0thinking\u00a0and\u00a0school-age\u00a0children\u00a0andadolescents\u00a0in\u00a0integration\u00a0of\u00a0cognitive\u00a0operations\u00a0and\u00a0strategiesthat\u00a0enable\u00a0increasingly\u00a0difficult\u00a0tasks.<\/p>\n Developmental\u00a0Theories\u00a0of\u00a0Information\u00a0Processing<\/strong> (p.\u00a0282)<\/strong><\/p>\n How\u00a0do\u00a0Case\u2019s\u00a0neo-Piagetian\u00a0theory\u00a0and\u00a0Siegler\u2019s\u00a0model\u00a0ofstrategy\u00a0choice\u00a0explain\u00a0changes\u00a0in\u00a0children\u2019s\u00a0thinking?<\/strong><\/em><\/p>\n \u25a0\u00a0Case\u2019s\u00a0neo-Piagetian\u00a0theory<\/strong>\u00a0accepts\u00a0Piaget\u2019s\u00a0stages\u00a0butattributes\u00a0change\u00a0within\u00a0and\u00a0between\u00a0stages\u00a0to\u00a0greater\u00a0efficiencyin\u00a0use\u00a0of\u00a0working-memory\u00a0capacity.\u00a0Brain\u00a0development,\u00a0practicewith\u00a0schemes\u00a0and\u00a0automization,\u00a0and\u00a0formation\u00a0of\u00a0centralconceptual\u00a0structures<\/strong>\u00a0contribute\u00a0to\u00a0development.\u00a0Case\u2019s\u00a0theoryprovides\u00a0an\u00a0information-processing\u00a0explanation\u00a0of\u00a0the\u00a0continuumof\u00a0acquisition\u2014that\u00a0many\u00a0understandings\u00a0appear\u00a0in\u00a0specificsituations\u00a0at\u00a0different\u00a0times\u2014and\u00a0thus\u00a0is\u00a0better\u00a0able\u00a0than\u00a0Piaget\u2019stheory\u00a0to\u00a0account\u00a0for\u00a0unevenness\u00a0in\u00a0cognitive\u00a0development.<\/p>\n \u25a0\u00a0Siegler\u2019s\u00a0model\u00a0of\u00a0strategy\u00a0choice<\/strong>\u00a0highlights\u00a0children\u2019sexperimentation\u00a0with\u00a0and\u00a0selection\u00a0of\u00a0mental\u00a0strategies\u00a0to\u00a0accountfor\u00a0the\u00a0diversity\u00a0and\u00a0ever-changing\u00a0nature\u00a0of\u00a0children\u2019s\u00a0thinking.Strategy\u00a0development\u00a0follows\u00a0an\u00a0overlapping-waves\u00a0pattern.When\u00a0given\u00a0challenging\u00a0problems,\u00a0children\u00a0generate\u00a0a\u00a0variety\u00a0ofstrategies,\u00a0gradually\u00a0selecting\u00a0from\u00a0them\u00a0on\u00a0the\u00a0basis\u00a0of\u00a0accuracyand\u00a0speed.<\/p>\n Attention<\/strong> (p.\u00a0286)<\/strong><\/p>\n Describe\u00a0the\u00a0development\u00a0of\u00a0attention,\u00a0including\u00a0sustained,selective,\u00a0and\u00a0adaptable\u00a0strategies.<\/strong><\/em><\/p>\n \u25a0\u00a0Gains\u00a0in\u00a0sustained\u00a0attention\u00a0depend\u00a0on\u00a0rapid\u00a0growth\u00a0of\u00a0theprefrontal\u00a0cortex,\u00a0the\u00a0capacity\u00a0to\u00a0generate\u00a0increasingly\u00a0complexplay\u00a0goals,\u00a0and\u00a0adult\u00a0scaffolding\u00a0of\u00a0attention.\u00a0As\u00a0sustainedattention\u00a0increases,\u00a0children\u00a0become\u00a0better\u00a0at\u00a0focusing\u00a0on\u00a0relevantaspects\u00a0of\u00a0a\u00a0task\u00a0and\u00a0at\u00a0flexibly\u00a0adapting\u00a0attention\u00a0to\u00a0taskrequirements.\u00a0Sustained,\u00a0selective,\u00a0and\u00a0adaptable\u00a0attention\u00a0dependon\u00a0inhibition,<\/strong>\u00a0the\u00a0ability\u00a0to\u00a0control\u00a0distracting\u00a0stimuli.<\/p>\n \u25a0\u00a0Development\u00a0of\u00a0attentional\u00a0(and\u00a0memory)\u00a0strategies\u00a0tends\u00a0tooccur\u00a0in\u00a0four\u00a0phases:\u00a0(1)\u00a0production\u00a0deficiency<\/strong>\u00a0(failure\u00a0toproduce\u00a0the\u00a0strategy);\u00a0(2)\u00a0control\u00a0deficiency<\/strong>\u00a0(failure\u00a0to\u00a0executethe\u00a0strategy\u00a0effectively);\u00a0(3)\u00a0utilization\u00a0deficiency<\/strong>\u00a0(consistent\u00a0useof\u00a0the\u00a0strategy,\u00a0but\u00a0with\u00a0little\u00a0or\u00a0no\u00a0performance\u00a0improvement);and\u00a0(4)\u00a0effective\u00a0strategy\u00a0use.<\/strong><\/p>\n \u25a0\u00a0From\u00a0age\u00a05\u00a0on,\u00a0children\u00a0undergo\u00a0marked\u00a0advances\u00a0in\u00a0planning.<\/strong>They\u00a0learn\u00a0much\u00a0from\u00a0cultural\u00a0tools\u00a0that\u00a0support\u00a0planning,\u00a0adultguidance\u00a0and\u00a0encouragement,\u00a0and\u00a0opportunities\u00a0to\u00a0practice.<\/p>\n Memory<\/strong> (p.\u00a0292)<\/strong><\/p>\n Describe\u00a0the\u00a0development\u00a0of\u00a0strategies\u00a0for\u00a0storing\u00a0and\u00a0retrievinginformation\u00a0from\u00a0memory.<\/strong><\/em><\/p>\n \u25a0\u00a0Although\u00a0the\u00a0beginnings\u00a0of\u00a0memory\u00a0strategies\u00a0can\u00a0be\u00a0seen\u00a0inearly\u00a0childhood,\u00a0young\u00a0children\u00a0seldom\u00a0engage\u00a0in\u00a0rehearsal<\/strong>\u00a0or\u00a0organization.<\/strong>\u00a0As\u00a0use\u00a0of\u00a0these\u00a0strategies\u00a0improves,\u00a0school-agechildren\u00a0combine\u00a0them;\u00a0the\u00a0more\u00a0strategies\u00a0they\u00a0usesimultaneously,\u00a0the\u00a0better\u00a0they\u00a0remember.\u00a0Elaboration<\/strong>\u00a0emerges\u00a0atthe\u00a0end\u00a0of\u00a0middle\u00a0childhood.\u00a0Task\u00a0demands\u00a0and\u00a0culturalcircumstances\u00a0influence\u00a0the\u00a0development\u00a0of\u00a0memory\u00a0strategies.<\/p>\n \u25a0 Recognition,<\/strong>\u00a0the\u00a0simplest\u00a0form\u00a0of\u00a0retrieval,\u00a0is\u00a0a\u00a0fairly\u00a0automaticprocess\u00a0that\u00a0is\u00a0highly\u00a0accurate\u00a0by\u00a0the\u00a0preschool\u00a0years.\u00a0Recall<\/strong>\u2014generating\u00a0a\u00a0mental\u00a0representation\u00a0of\u00a0an\u00a0absent\u00a0stimulus\u2014is\u00a0morechallenging,\u00a0shows\u00a0much\u00a0greater\u00a0improvement\u00a0with\u00a0age,\u00a0and\u00a0isstrongly\u00a0associated\u00a0with\u00a0language\u00a0development.<\/p>\n \u25a0\u00a0Even\u00a0young\u00a0children\u00a0engage\u00a0in\u00a0reconstruction<\/strong>\u00a0whenremembering\u00a0complex,\u00a0meaningful\u00a0material.\u00a0As\u00a0originallyprovided\u00a0information\u00a0decays\u00a0and\u00a0new\u00a0information\u00a0is\u00a0presented,children\u00a0make\u00a0more\u00a0inferences,\u00a0and\u00a0the\u00a0coherence\u00a0ofreconstructed\u00a0information\u00a0and\u00a0its\u00a0memorableness\u00a0increase.However,\u00a0much\u00a0recalled\u00a0information\u00a0can\u00a0be\u00a0inaccurate.<\/p>\n \u25a0\u00a0According\u00a0to\u00a0fuzzy-trace\u00a0theory,<\/strong>\u00a0when\u00a0information\u00a0is\u00a0encoded,\u00a0itis\u00a0reconstructed\u00a0automatically\u00a0into\u00a0a\u00a0gist<\/strong>\u2014a\u00a0vague,\u00a0fuzzy\u00a0versionthat\u00a0is\u00a0especially\u00a0useful\u00a0for\u00a0reasoning.\u00a0With\u00a0age,\u00a0children\u00a0rely\u00a0lesson\u00a0verbatim\u00a0memory\u00a0and\u00a0more\u00a0on\u00a0reconstructed\u00a0gists,\u00a0contributingto\u00a0improved\u00a0recall\u00a0of\u00a0details\u00a0with\u00a0age.<\/p>\n Explain\u00a0the\u00a0development\u00a0of\u00a0episodic\u00a0memory\u00a0and\u00a0its\u00a0relationship\u00a0tosemantic\u00a0memory.<\/strong><\/em><\/p>\n \u25a0 Semantic\u00a0memory<\/strong>\u2014our\u00a0vast\u00a0general\u00a0knowledge\u00a0system\u2014contributes\u00a0vitally\u00a0to\u00a0and\u00a0develops\u00a0earlier\u00a0than\u00a0episodic\u00a0memory.<\/strong>Not\u00a0until\u00a03\u00a0or\u00a04\u00a0years\u00a0of\u00a0age\u00a0do\u00a0children\u00a0have\u00a0a\u00a0well-functioningmemory\u00a0system\u00a0of\u00a0personally\u00a0experienced\u00a0events\u00a0that\u00a0occurred\u00a0ata\u00a0specific\u00a0time\u00a0and\u00a0place.<\/p>\n \u25a0\u00a0Like\u00a0adults,\u00a0young\u00a0children\u00a0remember\u00a0familiar\u00a0experiences\u00a0interms\u00a0of\u00a0scripts<\/strong>\u2014a\u00a0special\u00a0form\u00a0of\u00a0episodic\u00a0memory\u00a0that\u00a0permitsthem\u00a0to\u00a0predict\u00a0what\u00a0might\u00a0happen\u00a0on\u00a0future\u00a0similar\u00a0occasions.And\u00a0as\u00a0preschoolers\u00a0talk\u00a0with\u00a0adults\u00a0about\u00a0personally\u00a0significantpast\u00a0events,\u00a0they\u00a0adopt\u00a0the\u00a0narrative\u00a0thinking\u00a0generated\u00a0in\u00a0thesedialogues,\u00a0forming\u00a0an\u00a0autobiographical\u00a0memory.<\/strong>\u00a0Childrenwhose\u00a0parents\u00a0use\u00a0an\u00a0elaborative\u00a0rather\u00a0than\u00a0a\u00a0repetitiveconversational\u00a0style\u00a0produce\u00a0more\u00a0coherent\u00a0and\u00a0detailed\u00a0personalstories.<\/p>\n How\u00a0does\u00a0eyewitness\u00a0memory\u00a0change\u00a0with\u00a0age,\u00a0and\u00a0what\u00a0factorsinfluence\u00a0the\u00a0accuracy\u00a0of\u00a0children\u2019s\u00a0reports?<\/strong><\/em><\/p>\n \u25a0\u00a0Compared\u00a0with\u00a0preschoolers,\u00a0school-age\u00a0children\u00a0are\u00a0better\u00a0atgiving\u00a0accurate\u00a0and\u00a0detailed\u00a0eyewitness\u00a0accounts\u00a0and\u00a0resistingadults\u2019\u00a0misleading\u00a0questions.\u00a0When\u00a0a\u00a0biased\u00a0adult\u00a0repeatedly\u00a0asksleading\u00a0questions,\u00a0children\u00a0are\u00a0far\u00a0more\u00a0likely\u00a0to\u00a0give\u00a0falseinformation.\u00a0Negative\u00a0stereotyping\u00a0of\u00a0the\u00a0accused\u00a0and\u00a0a\u00a0longdelay\u00a0between\u00a0the\u00a0events\u00a0and\u00a0the\u00a0child\u2019s\u00a0eyewitness\u00a0report\u00a0furthercontribute\u00a0to\u00a0inaccurate\u00a0reporting.<\/p>\n Metacognition<\/strong> (p.\u00a0303)<\/strong><\/p>\n Describe\u00a0the\u00a0development\u00a0of\u00a0metacognitive\u00a0knowledge\u00a0andcognitive\u00a0self-regulation.<\/strong><\/em><\/p>\n \u25a0 Metacognition<\/strong>\u00a0expands\u00a0greatly\u00a0as\u00a0children\u00a0construct\u00a0a\u00a0na\u00efve\u00a0theory\u00a0of\u00a0mind,<\/strong>\u00a0a\u00a0coherent\u00a0understanding\u00a0of\u00a0people\u00a0as\u00a0mentalbeings.\u00a0From\u00a0early\u00a0to\u00a0middle\u00a0childhood,\u00a0children\u00a0becomeincreasingly\u00a0conscious\u00a0of\u00a0cognitive\u00a0capacities\u00a0and\u00a0strategies.\u00a0Theycome\u00a0to\u00a0view\u00a0the\u00a0mind\u00a0as\u00a0an\u00a0active,\u00a0constructive\u00a0agent\u00a0rather\u00a0thana\u00a0passive\u00a0container\u00a0of\u00a0information.\u00a0As\u00a0older\u00a0children\u00a0considerinteractions\u00a0among\u00a0variables,\u00a0metacognitive\u00a0knowledge\u00a0becomesmore\u00a0complex\u00a0and\u00a0integrated.<\/p>\n \u25a0 Cognitive\u00a0self-regulation<\/strong>\u2014continually\u00a0monitoring\u00a0andcontrolling\u00a0progress\u00a0toward\u00a0a\u00a0goal\u2014develops\u00a0gradually.\u00a0Itimproves\u00a0with\u00a0adult\u00a0instruction\u00a0in\u00a0effective\u00a0strategy\u00a0use\u00a0andpredicts\u00a0academic\u00a0success.<\/p>\n Applications\u00a0of\u00a0Information\u00a0Processing\u00a0to\u00a0AcademicLearning<\/strong> (p.\u00a0307)<\/strong><\/p>\n Discuss\u00a0the\u00a0development\u00a0of\u00a0reading,\u00a0mathematics,\u00a0and\u00a0scientificreasoning,\u00a0noting\u00a0the\u00a0implications\u00a0of\u00a0research\u00a0findings\u00a0forteaching.<\/strong><\/em><\/p>\n \u25a0 Emergent\u00a0literacy<\/strong>\u00a0reveals\u00a0that\u00a0young\u00a0children\u00a0understand\u00a0a\u00a0greatdeal\u00a0about\u00a0written\u00a0language\u00a0before\u00a0they\u00a0read\u00a0and\u00a0write\u00a0inconventional\u00a0ways.\u00a0Preschoolers\u00a0gradually\u00a0revise\u00a0incorrect\u00a0ideasabout\u00a0the\u00a0meaning\u00a0of\u00a0written\u00a0symbols\u00a0as\u00a0their\u00a0cognitive\u00a0capacitiesimprove,\u00a0as\u00a0they\u00a0encounter\u00a0writing\u00a0in\u00a0many\u00a0contexts,\u00a0and\u00a0as\u00a0adultshelp\u00a0them\u00a0with\u00a0written\u00a0communication.<\/p>\n \u25a0 \n
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