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Your textbook discusses some of the issues related to using children as witnesses in court cases. \u00a0There have been many studies done relating to the unreliability of eyewitness testimony in both children and adults. \u00a0In the 1980’s and 1990’s, there was a series of court cases related to alleged multi-victim, multi-offender sexual and ritual abuse in day care centers across the country (the McMartin and Little Rascals cases being perhaps the most publicized).\u00a0<\/strong><\/p>\n Please click on the two (2) links below and carefully read the articles:<\/strong><\/p>\n http:\/\/www.history.com\/this-day-in-history\/teachers-are-indicted-at-the-mcmartin-preschool<\/strong><\/a><\/p>\n http:\/\/littlerascalsdaycarecase.org\/<\/strong><\/a><\/p>\n Please post thoroughly thought through answers to the questions below on the Discussion Forum for the week.\u00a0<\/strong><\/p>\n 1. How do you think that investigators and therapists, in their quest to find the truth, may have contributed to children making false or exaggerated allegations in these cases?<\/strong><\/p>\n 2. \u00a0What implications do these types of cases have for people who run childcare centers?<\/strong><\/p>\n 3. \u00a0\u00a0What are the lessons learned from these cases?\u00a0<\/strong><\/p>\n 4. \u00a0\u00a0How should investigators and therapists proceed when a child or their parent makes such \u00a0\u00a0\u00a0allegations?<\/strong><\/p>\n 5. \u00a0How can the investigators and therapists obtain the information they need without manipulating the child’s memory, even if inadvertently.<\/strong><\/p>\n READING<\/strong><\/p>\n Cognitive Development<\/p>\n \u00a0Topics to be covered include: Introduction<\/p>\n This lesson will look at three theories on cognitive development. The first theory we will discuss is Piaget\u2019s. Piaget believed that children actively construct their development by adapting their existing knowledge to new situations. We will look at how this unfolds in Piaget\u2019s four stages of development. We will then look at quite a different aspect of cognitive development in the second theory by Vygotsky. Vygotsky believed that cognitive development is mediated by sociocultural factors, and that the zone of proximal development refers to what children can achieve with and without help. The third theory we will look at is information-processing. Information-processing compares our minds to computers, and concentrates on cognitive processes, memory, reasoning and problem-solving. Finally, we will look at how our minds differ from computers because of our awareness of what we know and how we know \u2013 an awareness known as metacognition.<\/p>\n Piaget\u2019s Theory of Cognitive Development<\/p>\n Photograph Jean Piaget<\/em><\/a> at the University of Michigan campus in Ann Arbor.<\/p>\n INSPIRATION FOR THEORY<\/u><\/p>\n In the first lesson, we briefly touched on Jean Piaget\u2019s theory of cognitive development. Piaget\u2019s work on cognitive development began when he was working on IQ tests for children. He noticed that children of the same age got the same questions wrong, and that the answers of different age groups differed systematically from one another. Piaget then began studying cognitive development by giving young children problems to solve, and observing their behavior as they tried to solve these problems, and by giving older children problems to solve, and asking them to explain their thinking processes.<\/p>\n CONSTRUCTIVIST VIEW<\/u><\/p>\n The main principle of Piaget\u2019s theory – that children actively seek knowledge \u2013 is contradictory to behaviorism which has the perspective that children passively wait for stimuli. Piaget\u2019s theory is a constructivist view <\/strong>because it claims that cognitive development occurs when children build new knowledge onto their existing knowledge base. This refers to the organization of how development occurs.<\/p>\n SCHEMAS<\/u><\/p>\n The main area of cognition <\/strong>that Piaget focused on was the logic of how objects work and relate to one another. Schemas <\/strong>are concepts or elements of knowledge. While schemas get more complex as cognition develops, complexity occurs in an organized, systematic way.<\/p>\n The child\u2019s increasing knowledge progressively organizes the way they interpret and interact with the world. For instance, babies use sucking to feed, then they use sucking to explore objects, both of which are physical activities which develop schemas about the world. As children grown, schemas are developed less by physical activities, and more by mental activities or operations.<\/p>\n ASSIMILATION<\/u><\/p>\n Assimilation is when experiences in the environment are interpreted through the child\u2019s extant schema. If the extant schema is unable to assimilate the experience \u2013 or if the approach or strategy is unsuccessful, accommodation occurs, which allows the extant schema to be modified to fit the characteristics of the experience. This adaptation results in cognitive development because the schema became more complex and the child acquired knowledge.<\/p>\n Stages of Cognitive Development: Sensorimotor Stage<\/p>\n Schemas develop in four major stages. Explore these stages through this video.<\/p>\n As we explore these stages, keep in mind that Piaget was more concerned with the order the stages appeared in than with the age of their onset (Parke & Gauvain, 2009).<\/p>\n Sensorimotor Stage<\/p>\n In the first two years of life, children pass through the sensorimotor stage<\/strong>.Children build on their basic reflexes, and by the age of two, mental representations <\/strong>of objects and events are used to solve problems. Object permanence <\/strong>is a key milestone where infants learn that objects continue to exist even when they are out of sight. The sensorimotor stage comprises six substages, in which schemas are built upon and combined.<\/p>\n Although comprehensive, Piaget\u2019s theory on these stages is not infallible. Baillargeon and Wang (2002) found that at around three and a half months, infants are indeed aware of object permanence but cannot display it due to limited hand-eye coordination. In addition to object permanence, developmental psychologists argue that from a very early age, infants possess core knowledge systems or a fundamental understanding of the physical world, such as object solidity whereby solid objects cannot pass through each other (Spelke, 2000).<\/p>\n Symbolic function, which includes deferred imitation, language and imaginary play, increases. Piaget claimed that animistic thinking, or attributing life to inanimate objects, is characteristic of this stage, while subsequent research has found that at this stage, children actually can distinguish between inanimate and animate objects (Massey & Gelman, 1988). Borke (1975), also contradicted Piaget\u2019s claim that children at this stage are egocentric or unable to see things from other people\u2019s perspective.<\/p>\n Children intuitively apply mental operations without understanding the principles behind them. For instance, a child may correctly classify objects but not be able to explain why they were classified as such. At this stage, children also cannot fully grasp whole-part relationships \u2013 that is, how subsets are part of sets. Smith (1979) however refuted Piaget\u2019s findings by experimenting with simpler questions which children correctly answered.<\/p>\n Symbolic function, which includes deferred imitation, language and imaginary play, increases. Piaget claimed that animistic thinking, or attributing life to inanimate objects, is characteristic of this stage, while subsequent research has found that at this stage, children actually can distinguish between inanimate and animate objects (Massey & Gelman, 1988). Borke (1975), also contradicted Piaget\u2019s claim that children at this stage are egocentric or unable to see things from other people\u2019s perspective.<\/p>\n Semilogic occurs because at this stage, children have not grasped reversibility \u2013 for instance, what the result would be if the liquid was poured back into the short glass. They also cannot grasp the means by which the state was obtained, and only focus on the end result \u2013 the child only assimilated the higher liquid level but not the transfer from the wider to the narrower glass. Lastly, centration refers to how children can only focus on one dimension at a time \u2013 the heights of the liquid levels but not the widths of the glasses.<\/p>\n This stage of development is criticized because the age at which children understand conservation varies according to their experience with such concepts (Rogoff, 2003). For instance, children from communities in Mexico where adults make clay pots, understand conservation far earlier than most Western children (Price-Williams, Gordon, & Ramirez, 1969).<\/p>\n This finding raises questions about the relationship between cognitive development and cultural practices, and the generalizability of Piaget\u2019s findings. Just as Piaget defined intelligence as the capacity to adapt to the environment (Parke & Gauvain, 2009), we can see that cognitive development is intimately intertwined with the cultural environment, and thus differs in each cultural context. Dasen (1984) therefore argued that cognitive skills develop according to their usefulness in our everyday lives.<\/p>\n Birth to 1 month<\/p>\n Basic Reflex Activity: Infants only look at objects that are in front of them, and involuntary reflexes become more voluntary.<\/p>\n \u00a0\u00a0<\/p>\n 1 to 4 months<\/p>\n Infants still have no concept that objects exist on their own. For instance, if an object is dropped, they will not follow its path as it falls. Infants repeat behaviors related to their own bodies that they find pleasurable \u2013 for example, finger sucking.<\/p>\n \u00a0\u00a0<\/p>\n 4 to 8 months<\/p>\n Infants begin to be aware of object permanence, and they repeat actions on external objects \u2013 for example, shaking a rattle, searching visually for the rattle if it is dropped or watching its path as it falls.<\/p>\n \u00a0\u00a0<\/p>\n 8 to 12 months<\/p>\n Infants develop intentions towards objects and combine schemas to achieve these goals. For instance, an infant may have to move one object out of the way to reach another. Problem-solving thus begins.<\/p>\n \u00a0\u00a0<\/p>\n 12 to 18 months<\/p>\n Infants are now aware of object permanence, and use trial-and-error methods to solve problems and learn about objects. Infants will for example drop objects from different heights to see what happens to them.<\/p>\n \u00a0\u00a0<\/p>\n 18 to 24 months<\/p>\n Infants can find objects that have been hidden as object permanence is fully acquired. They use mental schemas rather than physical trial-and-error to solve problems. Symbolic capability emerges in the infant\u2019s use of language and deferred imitation.<\/p>\n ~ scroll for more ~<\/em><\/p>\n Stages of Cognitive Development: The Preoperational Stage<\/p>\n In the preoperational stage<\/strong>, children develop the capacity to represent experiences and objects symbolically through words, gestures and images. This capacity develops over two substages.<\/p>\n THE PRECONCEPTUAL SUBSTAGE (2-4 YEARS)<\/u><\/p>\n THE INTUITIVE SUBSTAGE (4-7 YEARS)<\/u><\/p>\n Piaget proposed that children in the preoperational stage are semilogical.<\/p>\n \u00b7 SEMILOGICAL<\/strong><\/p>\n \u00b7 \u00a0<\/p>\n Beginning around the age of eleven or twelve, the formal operational stage <\/strong>is characterized by the capacity to consider many dimensions of a problem, flexible, complex thought processes, abstract thinking and mental hypothesis testing (Kuhn & Franklin, 2006). Individuals in this stage are able to apply logical concepts to problem-solving, think about philosophy and consider alternatives that are not observable.<\/p>\n Kuhn and Franklin (2006) argue that not even all adults reach this level of cognitive development. Furthermore, not all cultures or even groups within Western society emphasize abstract, logical reasoning (Moshman, 1998).<\/p>\n \u00b7 REVERSIBILITY<\/strong><\/u><\/p>\n \u00b7 CONSERVATION<\/strong><\/u><\/p>\n \u00b7 ROLE OF CULTURE<\/strong><\/u><\/p>\n Think back to the video you watched at the beginning of this section on Piaget\u2019s stages of development. One scene showed an experiment in which blue liquid was poured from a short, wide glass into a tall, narrow glass. The child knew it was the same liquid, that is, that the quality<\/em> was the same, but the child was unable to understand that the quantity<\/em> was still the same because it had changed shape. Semilogic thus refers to how children in the preoperational stage cannot conserve the quantity of objects if they are converted, but can conserve their quality.<\/p>\n Stages of Cognitive Development: The Stage of Concrete Findings<\/p>\n \u00b7 CONCRETE OPERATIONS<\/p>\n \u00b7 FORMAL OPERATIONS<\/u><\/p>\n Children pass through the concrete operational stage <\/strong>between the age of seven to twelve. They grasp reversibility, conservation and can assimilate more than one dimension of a problem simultaneously. However, problems can only be solved if they are tied to concrete reality. As such, problems posed verbally cannot be solved, whereas if the components of problems are physically present, they can be solved. Critics argue however, that this may be more a function of memory. Piaget also proposed that children correctly classify objects in this stage, but researchers have found that classification capacity occurs far earlier and in a far more sophisticated manner than Piaget thought (Cohen & Cashon, 2006; Rakison, 2007).<\/p>\n Piagetian Concepts and Social Cognition<\/p>\n Social Cognition<\/p>\n Piaget\u2019s work sparked ideas in other researchers about the development of social cognition. The first idea is that as children develop, they begin to differentiate themselves from others. This includes recognizing themselves in a mirror for the first time at around the age of two. It also includes understanding their own motives, values and psychological experiences, and by around the age of eleven, they start to have an integrated, complex view of themselves and their role in society (Harter, 2006).<\/p>\n Moral Development and Prosocial Behavior<\/p>\n Another idea is that children are able to understand others\u2019 perspectives as they become less egocentric. This is key in moral development and prosocial behavior. Theory of mind is the third idea, and refers to how children come to understand the mind and people as psychological beings. It includes topic (sample nursing essay examples by the best nursing assignment writing service)s such as dreams, deception, beliefs, desires, needs, distinguishing between appearance and reality, and insight into others\u2019 psychological states.<\/p>\n Knowledge Check<\/p>\n 1<\/a><\/p>\n Question 1<\/p>\n According to Piaget, if a child can correctly organize pictures of animals and birds into their respective categories, but not explain why they categorized them as such, the child is in which stage?<\/p>\n \u00a0\u00a0<\/p>\n The \u00a0\u00a0semilogical stage.<\/p>\n \u00a0<\/p>\n The \u00a0\u00a0stage of formal operations.<\/p>\n \u00a0<\/p>\n The \u00a0\u00a0preoperational stage.<\/p>\n \u00a0<\/p>\n The \u00a0\u00a0sensorimotor stage.<\/p>\n I don’t know<\/p>\n One attempt<\/em><\/p>\n Submit answer<\/strong><\/p>\n You answered 0 out of 0 correctly. Asking up to 1.<\/em><\/p>\n Vygotsky\u2019s Sociocultural Theory of Cognitive Development<\/p>\n Let\u2019s begin this section by watching a video about the differences between Piaget\u2019s and Vygotsky\u2019s cognitive theories.<\/p>\n \u2039\u203a<\/p>\n \u00b7 Lev Vygotsky<\/strong><\/p>\n We have noted that Piaget\u2019s cognitive theory does not consider cultural and social influences on cognitive development, whereas Lev Vygotsky\u2019s theory does. Vygotsky grew up amid social tumult in Russia in the early twentieth century, and he noticed the enormous impact this had on people (Kozulin, 1990).<\/p>\n As a result, Vygotsky focused on how children develop their inherited capabilities by interacting with more experienced people in their culture. Since Vygotsky saw development as occurring socially, he focused on the importance of language, how children interact with others, and the symbols and psychological tools used in a culture to promote development. He referred to these as mediators<\/strong>. Mediators are culture specific.<\/p>\n Knowledge Check<\/p>\n 1<\/a><\/p>\n Question 1<\/p>\n Recall the example of the child with the blue liquid, where the child was able to conserve the quality but not the quantity of the liquid. Please select the two correct answers relating to this example.<\/p>\n \u00a0\u00a0<\/p>\n Vygotsky \u00a0\u00a0would have seen this as an opportunity for scaffolding rather than as a \u00a0\u00a0discrete stage.<\/p>\n \u00a0<\/p>\n Vygotsky \u00a0\u00a0saw this as semilogic, while Piaget would probably explain this as \u00a0\u00a0development from elementary to higher mental functions.<\/p>\n \u00a0<\/p>\n Vygotsky \u00a0\u00a0would most likely have tested this assumption on children from various \u00a0\u00a0cultural backgrounds, rather than generalizing it to a stage of development.<\/p>\n \u00a0<\/p>\n In \u00a0\u00a0terms of the zone of proximal development, Vygotsky would have attributed the \u00a0\u00a0child\u2019s inability to conserve quantity to her inherited capabilities.<\/p>\n I don’t know<\/p>\n One attempt<\/em><\/p>\n Submit answer<\/strong><\/p>\n You answered 0 out of 0 correctly. Asking up to 1.<\/em><\/p>\n The Information-processing Perspective of Cognitive Development<\/p>\n The way a computer processes information is analogous to the way information-processing theories view human cognitive development. Both computer and human mind are organized systems that use rules of logic to process, symbolically encode, analyze and apply information from the environment. While neither can use all types of information, both have the flexibility to discard unnecessary information and improve their processing capabilities. Human minds however, can consider a wider range of problems, but are not as fast as computers at processing information.<\/p>\n According to Siegler and Alibali (2005), the information-processing approach to cognitive development is based on four assumptions:<\/p>\n THINKING<\/u><\/p>\n INFORMATION PROCESSING<\/u><\/p>\n COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT<\/u><\/p>\n TASK ANALYSIS<\/u><\/p>\n We will now look at two main information-processing models.<\/p>\n MULTISTORE MODEL<\/u><\/p>\n CONNECTIONIST MODELS<\/u><\/p>\n NEO-PIAGETIAN THEORIES<\/u><\/p>\n Cognitive Processes<\/p>\n Cognitive processes <\/strong>describe how information is acted on by the mental system. There are four major cognitive processes.<\/p>\n \u00b7 MENTAL REPRESENTATION AND CODING<\/p>\n \u00b7 STRATEGIES<\/u><\/p>\n \u00b7 AUTOMATIZATION<\/u><\/p>\n \u00b7 GENERALIZATION<\/u><\/p>\n Mental representation and coding refers to how relevant information is distinguished from the masses of information we are exposed to, and transformed into mentally stored information or mental representations.<\/p>\n Executive Control Processes<\/p>\n The prefrontal cortex guides how strategies are used to process information through executive control processes<\/strong>. Children\u2019s knowledge base about the problems they are trying to solve also determines how they will go about solving the problem. For instance, certain children may have very useful knowledge on how to use certain computer programs to solve complex problems.<\/p>\n Developmental Changes<\/p>\n As children develop, their concentration and memory spans improve, and they learn to attend to what is relevant and develop plans of action. Processing speed also increases with development as children recognize words faster and apply a broader range of strategies more readily. For instance, if a large amount of information needs to be memorized, older children will break it into meaningful chunks or organize it into categories or relationships to remember more easily.<\/p>\n Knowledge Check<\/p>\n
\u25cf Piaget\u2019s theory of cognitive development
\u25cf Vygotsky\u2019s sociocultural theory of cognitive development
\u25cf The information-processing perspective of cognitive development<\/p>\nTHE PRECONCEPTUAL SUBSTAGE (2-4 YEARS)<\/h3>\n
THE PRECONCEPTUAL SUBSTAGE (2-4 YEARS)<\/h3>\n