Why not women seafarers?
\nTowards a development strategy for the recruitment and retention of
\nwomen seafarers in cargo ships with particular reference to the
\nRepublic of Korea
\nBy
\nSOHYUN, JO
\nRepublic of Korea
\nA dissertation submitted to the World Maritime University in partial fulfilment of the
\nrequirements for the award of the degree of
\nMASTER OF SCIENCE
\nIn
\nMARITIME AFFAIRS
\n(MARITIME SAFETY ENVIRONMENT ADMINISTRATION)<\/p>\n
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
\nFirst and foremost, I would like to thank my organization, the Korea Institute of
\nMaritime and Fisheries Technology (KIMFT), my special supporter President Shin-Gil
\nKang, Professor Kyung-Suk, Kim, all the KIMFT professors and staff, provided me with
\ngreat opportunity to expand the horizons of my knowledge and global culture at World
\nMaritime University, Sweden.
\nI am extremely grateful to my supervisor Professor, Neil Bellefontaine and Professor
\nDaniel Seong-Hyeok Moon for supporting and guiding me through the path of
\nknowledge and giving in-deph comments. My special thanks to Helpant Professor
\nClive Cole for being understanding and giving meticulous supervision considering my
\nerratic shedule, without which, this dissertation would not have been possible.
\nI would like to express my gratefulness to all respondents who participated in this
\nresearch survey from former women seafarers, women seafarers and varied shipping
\ncompanies and Maritime Universities for their contributions, interviews and experience,
\nwithout which the project ( help with nursing paper writing from experts with MSN & DNP degrees) would not have been completed.
\nI am also thankful to my library member, WMU colleagues, Miss Vivien Jane CAY,
\nMasashi SUGOMORI; we have been through a lot together to study as encouraging,
\nsharing information and valuable advice with each other. Also I would like to personally
\nthank especially my best friend, Enrico Dagostini, who has encouraged my study and
\nHelped me in innumerable ways.
\nFinally, my heartfelt thanks and sincere gratitude goes out to my parents In-Sik Jo and
\nHea-Suk Lee who live in my country, the Republic of Korea, for their tireless efforts,
\nencouragement and guidance in achieving success in life.
\n\u015d\u01c0
\nABSTRACT
\nTitle of Dissertation : Why not women seafarers?
\nTowards a development strategy for the recruitment and
\nretention of women seafarers in cargo ships with particular
\nreference to the Republic of Korea
\nDegree : Master of Science
\nWomen seafarer numbers are increasing in the world\u2019s fleets in the position of officers,
\nratings and pilots in many types of merchant ships. According to recent study, women
\nrepresent only 1-2 percent of the 1.25 million seafarers in the world. However, despite
\nincreasing women seafarers working onboard are only rising slightly, there are very few
\nstudies concerning women seafarers on cargo ships.
\nThe prime objective set for thesis is to identify what are the women seafarers problems
\nand concerns regarding employment on cargo ships. From the cargo ship point of view,
\nthe question then is how to provide sufficient solutions for women seafarers in the maledominated workplace of the ship through Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR)
\nactivities.
\nThe methodologies of study combine qualitative and quantitative research methods. The
\nprogress of research is to conduct a survey by asking a consistent set of key opinion
\nleaders from the Rep. of Korea. Moreover, to evaluate the elements of the result, the
\nresearch explores the way in which we should consider giving priority to aspects of the
\nproblem. Finally, based on the terms of CSR, the author recommends measures to
\nsupport the needs of women when they are employed aboard the world\u2019s merchant
\nvessels.
\nKEY WORDS: Women seafarers, Shortage seafarers, Corporate Social Responsibility
\n(CSR), Gender issues, Discrimination, Sexual harassment, Working Environment.
\n\u01c0
\nTABLE OF CONTENTS
\nLIST OF TABLES
\nLIST OF FIGURES
\nLIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
\nCHAPTER 1 Introduction
\n1.1 Preamble
\n1.2 Introduction
\n1.3 Dissertation Methodology
\n\u01c0\u015d
\n3.1.1 Employment of women by ship type and distribution by rank
\n3.2 Current Korean women seafarers\u2019 occupation in the global merchant ship market
\n3.2.1 The age of women seafarers
\n3.2.2 Type of ship employing women seafarers
\n3.3 Preference trend of Maritime University students regarding seafaring
\nCHAPTER 4 Policy and practices of imo towards female employment<\/p>\n
4.1 International Maritime Organization
\n4.1.1 Limitation of these Programmes
\nCHAPTER 5 Survey
\n5.1 Background to the Survey Questionnaire
\n\u01c0\u015d\u015d
\n6.6 Relatively low social recognition
\n6.7 Job dissatisfaction
\nCHAPTER 7 Corporate social responsibility
\n7.1 The shipping industry through CSR activities
\n\u01c0\u015d\u015d\u015d
\nLIST OF TABLES
\nTable 1 Status of graduated Maritime University female students\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358 \u03f5
\nTable 2 The number of world fleets by ship size (GRT) and ship type in 2010\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358 \u03ed\u03f0
\nTable 3 Setting of standard manning numbers by ship type and size \u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358 \u03ed\u03f1
\nTable 4 An estimated demand for seafarers of the world fleets in 2010\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358 \u03ed\u03f1
\nTable 5 Predicted demands for seafarers in the world fleets in 2020\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358 \u03ed\u03f3
\nTable 6 The percentage of Korean seafarers working on Nationality vessels\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358 \u03ed\u03f4
\nTable 7 Statistics for the unemployment of seafarers per year in Korea \u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358 \u03ed\u03f5
\nTable 8 Status of seafarers by supply and demand in Korea, in 2007\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358 \u03ee\u03ec
\nTable 9 Comparison between status of Merchant Ships and available Seafarers in 2003-2008 \u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358 \u03ee\u03ed
\nTable 10 Women seafarers employed in shipping companies, 2010\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358 \u03ee\u03f5
\nTable 11 Fellowship programme by TC \u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358 \u03ef\u03f4
\nTable 12 Overview of the project ( help with nursing paper writing from experts with MSN & DNP degrees) research \u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358 \u03f0\u03ec
\nTable 13 The age profile of respondents\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358 \u03f0\u03ed
\nTable 14 The current occupation of respondents \u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358 \u03f0\u03ee
\nTable 15 Type of ship with women onboard\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358 \u03f0\u03f1
\nTable 16 Rank (Left) and career (Right) onboard ship\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358 \u03f0\u03f2
\nTable 17 Main motivation to select a seafaring job \u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358 \u03f0\u03f3
\nTable 18 The method of control difficulty \u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358 \u03f1\u03ec
\nTable 19 Result of Cross Tabs analysis\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358 \u03f1\u03ec
\nTable 20 The difficult elements of seafaring at sea\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358 \u03f1\u03ed
\nTable 21 Strategy to improve and develop the working environment \u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358 \u03f1\u03ee
\nTable 22 Priority elements for improvement of shipping company \u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358 \u03f1\u03f0
\nTable 23 Korea\u2019s female labor market participation rate\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358 \u03f2\u03f3
\nTable 24 Female labour market participation rate by nation in 2004\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358 \u03f2\u03f3
\nTable 25 Satisfaction with employees through company ability\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358 \u03f4\u03ec
\n\u015d\u01c6
\nLIST OF FIGURES
\nFigure 1 Historical development of a number of fleets in the world \u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358 \u03ed\u03ef
\nFigure 2 Historical development of a number of fleets in the world- Tanker, Bulk carrier,
\nContainership and Multipurpose Fleet\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358 \u03ed\u03ef
\nFigure 3 Prospects for future world fleets until 2020, based on the actual number of the world
\ncommercial fleets 2010\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358 \u03ed\u03f2
\nFigure 4 Statistics for the unemployment of seafarers per year in Korea\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358 \u03ed\u03f5
\nFigure 5 Prospect for supply and demand of seafarers in the Korean maritime labor market\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358 \u03ee\u03ee
\nFigure 6 Employment of women by ship type and distribution by rank in the world \u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358 \u03ee\u03f3
\nFigure 7 Age profile of women seafarers (Lift) by Belcher et al., (2003) and Careers profile of
\nKorean women seafarers (Right)\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358 \u03ef\u03ed
\nFigure 8 The status of employment of women graduated students of MMU (2002 \u2013 2008) \u2013 Left \u0358\u0358 \u03ef\u03ef
\nFigure 9 Preference of future employment students of MMU, 2008 \u2013 Right \u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358 \u03ef\u03ef
\nFigure 10 Experience problem with colleagues \u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358 \u03f0\u03f5
\nFigure 11 Opinion profile\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358 \u03f1\u03f1
\nFigure 12 New paradigm of CSR \u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358\u0358 \u03f4\u03ed
\n\u01c6
\nLIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
\nBIMCO Baltic and International Maritime Council
\nCSR Corporate Social Responsibility
\nILO International Labour Organization
\nIMO International Maritime Organization
\nISF International Shipping Federation
\nITCP Organization\u2019s Integrated Technical Co-operation Programme
\nITF International Trade Federation
\nIWMS Integration of Women in the Maritime Sector
\nJITI & NF Japan International Transport Institute & the Nippon Foundation
\nKIMFT Korea Institute of Maritime and Fisheries Technology
\nKMU Korea Maritime University
\nKSWEC Korea Seafarer\u2019s Welfare & Employment Center
\nMET Maritime Education and Training Institutions
\nMMU Mokpo Maritime University
\nPOEA Philippine overseas Employment Administration
\nSMU China\u2019s Shanghai Maritime University
\nSPSS Statistical package for the social science
\nSIRC Seafarers International Research Centre
\nVTS Vessel Traffic Service
\nWID Women in Development
\nUN United Nations
\n\u03ed
\nChapter 1 Introduction
\n1.1 Preamble
\nIn 2000, a woodchip carrier grounded and bottom touched in Bell Bay, Tasmania. When
\na ship passed near Clay Bay, suddenly the Vessel Traffic Service (VTS) operator called
\nthe ship to inform of very poor visibility over the channel due to dense fog in the
\nparticular areas. However, unfortunately, it was too late as visibility was almost zero
\nwhen the ship faced fog near Clay Bay.
\nAs soon as the VTS call was received, the pilot and duty officer obviously were
\nembarrassed to figure a ship\u2019s position out of the radar so quickly. In an instant, the ship
\nran aground on the buoy of channel with a whole starboard side shell and bottom.
\nFinally, the ship\u2019s damage extended from her starboard bow to the stern side shell and
\nbottom. The worst damage was a hole in the bottom fore peak tank.
\n\u201c After the accident, I was glassy-eyed from shock. I was timely afraid of being
\ninvolved in a ship\u2019s accident during my duty time on my first voyage. My heart
\nwas great beating and I was in a miserable state from this accident. If possible, I
\nwanted to escape this entire horrible situation and go home. Other reason, It
\nseemed that someone were likely to lash out and press me close. And then, they
\ncould prove a taboo from women being onboard a ship, which has solely withstood
\na traditional male dominated occupation. Because many man believe that women
\nboard is a taboo in the shipping world, as it might come a terrible ship disaster or
\naccident of a serious and\/or minor nature\u201d
\nA duty officer recounted these situations and she said,
\n\u201c No one blamed me the as the direct cause of accident, however, I became a
\nworkaholic working on my own, I became rude, straightforward, no makeup, and
\n\u03ee
\ntry to be masculine since the accident happened. I shaved my head and wore a
\ndirty boiler suit while working as a sign I was part of them. Yes, I tried to not
\nshow my feelings and emotions and covered them up. I didn\u2019t apply to take a my
\nvacation during my 18 months onboard the ship due given I was afraid that if I did
\napply, the company would not employ me anymore\u201d
\nUnfortunately, the duty officer is the author of this paper. The author intends to
\ninvestigate the question as to why a duty officer who is a women seafarer felt scared and
\ntried to exhibit a masculine approach to her work place instead of accepting her feminine
\nsexuality in this situation. The author intends to investigate the issue of female seafarers
\nand how they are perceived onboard ship and would then like to find sufficient answers
\nleading to me conclusion of this paper.
\n1.2 Introduction
\nWomen seafarer numbers are increasing in the world\u2019s fleets in the position of officers,
\nratings and pilots in many types of ship such as cruise ships, bulk carriers and tankers.
\nAccording to a recent study, Belcher, P., Sampson H., Thomas M., Veiga J., and Zhao M.
\n(2003), women represent only 1-2 percent of the 1.25 million seafarers in the world.
\nMoreover, the study indicates that 94 percent of women are employed on passenger
\nships1
\nand 6 percent are employed on cargo ships.
\nHowever, despite the slight increase of women seafarers working onboard, there are few
\nstudies concerning women seafarers indicating that there has been insufficient progress
\nespecially on cargo ships. Kitada (2009b) states that there is very little information<\/p>\n
1
\nThe study by Belcher et al. (2003) found 94 percent of women are employed on passenger ships. If
\npassenger shipping is divided into cruise and ferry ship types, 68 percent of all the women are employed
\non ferries and 26 percent on cruise ships.
\n\u03ef
\nregarding women seafarers in general, including the actual population size. In addition,
\nthe author has been researching and investigating these studies regarding women
\nseafarers, however, most of these studies focus on passenger ships or cruise ships, not
\ncargo ships. It is difficult to find relevant studies regarding women seafarers in the world,
\nincluding in Korea.
\nThe only available statistical analyses regarding to women seafarers are published by
\nBelcher, et al. in 20032 . In accordance with ILO (2007), it introduced the above
\nmentioned study as more comments highlight a new ILO study as well as describing that
\nthe study assesses the overall aspects of a women seafarer\u2019s life; including how many
\nwomen are employed aboard ships, and then nationality by group.
\nIn the case of Korea, despite women being aboard ship since 1995, all aspects of the
\nstudy of Korean women seafarers has not sufficiently addressed policies on how to
\nwomen seafarers onboard. Few existing studies are available so far regarding reality for
\nmany women who work onboard on cargo ships. Possibly it is natural that these studies
\nfocus on male or overall seafarers rather than women seafarers because women coming
\nonboard in just a few past years as a pioneer step and occupy 1-2 percent among all the
\nseafarers of the world.
\nHowever, despite a few studies regarding women seafarers especially on cargo ships, in
\norder to put more women at sea, the author would say that it is necessary to carry out
\nresearch and address firstly where women seafarers are. In other words, attempting to
\nharness the data and the results of research regarding women seafarers, it might be
\nunderstood exactly how women seafarers\u2019 world is evolving.<\/p>\n
\u03ee Belcher, P., Sampson H., Thomas M., Veiga J., and Zhao M. (2003). Women seafarers: Global
\nemployment policies and practices, the first to focus on contemporary women seafarers. Geneva;
\nInternational Labor Office. See reference.
\n\u03f0
\nIn accordance with my literature review and relevant survey through both questionnaires
\nand in-depth interviews, this study reveals that some women seafarers continue to face
\ndiscrimination, prejudice and difficulties to work in the male-dominated workplace
\n(Aggrey, 2000) of cargo ships. Even though some women seafarers are employed
\nonboard, most of them tend to transfer their occupation to on shore under shipping
\nenterprises. What are the most significant women seafarer problems on ships? What are
\nthe solutions and problems concerning recruitment and retention of a woman seafarer\u2019s
\noccupation? Is not the ship a proper work place for women?
\nThe prime objective set for this thesis is to identify what women seafarers problems are
\nand concerns employment on cargo ships. The cargo ship point of view, the question
\nthen is how to provide solutions for women seafarers in the male-dominated workplace
\nof the ship through Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR)3
\nactivities. Therefore, it is
\nworth noting overwhelmingly that to achieve this change dynamic, there is a need for
\nattitudinizing change towards recruiting women as seafarers. Such changes, if
\nimplemented, might also attract more women to seafaring as a career. Further, Women
\nare an underutilized and available resource of maritime talent which the shipping sector
\nneeds to draw the balance upon to seafarer\u2019s shortfall (ILO, 2007).
\nThus, it might be worthwhile to conduct some solutions and policies concerning the
\nrecruitment and retention of women into the seafarer labour market in Korea; as well as
\npromote plans for women seafarers in the future.
\n1.3 Dissertation Methodology
\nTherefore, to achieve the full objective of this dissertation it is intended to address the
\nmain issues surrounding the recruitment and retention of women seafarers in Korea,<\/p>\n
3
\nSee Chapter 7, Corporate Social Responsibility
\n\u03f1
\nwhile providing some analysis of women seafarers’ statistics or\/and databases. The
\nmethodologies of study combine qualitative and quantitative research methods. The
\nprogress of research is to conduct a survey by asking some a consistent set of key
\nopinion leaders from the Rep. of Korea. Through telephone and questions, in-depth
\ninterviews were used as the major means of research according to individual participant
\npreference. Although the response of questionnaires and data were only collected from a
\nlimited number of seafarers, these individuals were carefully selected with the view of
\nconsiderable experience at sea.
\nWith this result, the author conducted a Frequency Analysis and Cross Tabs Analysis in
\nChapter 5, \u2018Survey\u2019 on respondents of the sample questionnaires through a Statistical
\npackage for social sciences (SPSS version 12 for Korean)4
\n. In addition, the research
\nseeks the best solution among those various elements from the statistical analysis tools
\nin Chapter 6. This step can help to make the right decision of how to find the one that
\nbest suits their needs and what support could be provided in order to improve life for
\nwomen seafarers. Moreover, to evaluate the elements of the result, the research will
\nexplore the way in which we should consider giving priority to the aspects of the
\nproblem. Finally, based on the terms of CSR in Chapter 7, the author recommends
\nmeasures to support the needs of women when they are employed aboard the world\u2019s
\nmerchant vessels in Chapter 8.
\n1.4 Woman seafarers\u2019 historiography in the world
\nAccording to Belcher et al. (2003), in the post-1945 period women began to appear
\nregularly as crew members aboard cargo ships, most often on Swedish ships as
\nstewardesses, cooks and radio officers. The study reviewed the history of women<\/p>\n
4
\nStatistical package for the social science (SPSS): computer program used for statistical analysis.
\n\u03f2
\nseafarers has existed over long period. In the late 1960s, a significant event was the first
\nwomen that were recruited as officer cadets and this was mainly in response to the
\nshortfall of male seafarers in Europe. It could be noted these instances may have been
\nseen as pioneering steps, yet the fact remains that companies still preferred to hire male
\nseafarers. From the mid-1980s, the shipping industry lessened this interest in recruiting
\nwomen because of an overcapacity problem with a new source of male seafarers from
\nAsia and Europe. In the late 1990s, when the industry began to experience more serious
\ndifficulties in recruiting men as seafarers, attention did again return to the recruitment of
\nwomen. Since the late 1990s, there has been a growing interest in training and recruiting
\nwomen seafarers. This is largely connected to the perceived shortages of officers in the
\nworld fleets, including the Republic of Korea.
\n1.4.1 Participation of women seafarers in Korea
\nThe shipping and maritime industry overall has been dramatically developed since the
\nKorean War in the 1950s. Industrial restructuring has occurred at least five times over
\nthe past 30-40 years since the Korean government adopted \u2018a strategy of economic
\ndevelopment\u2019 in 1964 (Cho, 2002). The Korean government came to the conclusion that
\na drastic change of policy was necessary to overcome those economic difficulties after
\nthe Korean War. Moreover, since then, the Korean government has recognized that the
\nkey sector for industrial growth in general was to invest in the maritime industries (Kim,
\n1999). Consequently, the Korean government paid attention to the importance of
\ndeveloping and investing in shipping and the maritime field for the country\u2019s rapid
\neconomic and industrial growth. For these reasons, the Korean government began to
\nconcentrate on this growth strategy. They set up industrial facilities; established new
\nports, larger ship building yards, container terminals, a related logistic infrastructure, as
\nwell as wisely investing in shipping companies, shipbuilding businesses, and port &
\nlogistics professional education (Ibid).
\n\u03f3
\nAs a result of these efforts, Korea\u2019s maritime economy and technology grew fast in the
\n1960s to 1990s. Consequently, with the outcome of the maritime industry\u2019s fast
\neconomic and technological growth, the demand for maritime labor increased, , at that
\ntime, as the Korean government had made efforts to strengthen technical and
\nprofessional training courses for related merchant work and thus, the number of
\nsuppliers who wanted to seek marine jobs was also sufficient. However, the numbers of
\njob seekers did not satisfy the overall demand. The government acknowledged there
\nwere still all of these problems to be ironed out, so they began to make an active effort to
\nsearch for solutions to the problem relevant to the supply of and demand for seafarers.
\nOne of the solutions was to allow female students to enter the Korea College of
\nMaritime Sciences of Korean Maritime University5
\n(KMU) that was a male-dominated
\ninstitution for men until 1991. This new policy was based on changing social trends and
\nthe needs to give an opportunity for high quality education to future workers. Further the
\nnew government policy wanted to improve and develop gender equality. Consequently,
\none female student entered the KMU in 1991 and graduated in 1995 as the first woman
\nNavigation Officer (3rd class) in Korea.
\n1.4.2 Breaking the all male-tradition in the maritime sector
\nAs previously mentioned, the KMU was opened to female students in1991 and, since
\nthen, the five female students graduated from the University in 1995, and contributed by
\nworking onboard as deck officers or engineer officers in major shipping companies. The
\nfemale seafarers have been a significant starting point for women by encouraging and<\/p>\n
5
\nKorea College of Maritime Sciences of Korean Maritime University is the first national university
\nestablished by the Korean government in order to advance the country\u2019s development, as well as to train
\nand educates manpower with a variety of skills in maritime industry in Korea. Students who have passed
\nthe national exam for the Marine Navigation Officer\u2019s License while attending the class are eligible to
\nacquire the license at the time of graduating from Korea College of Maritime Sciences of Korean
\nMaritime University (source from : http:\/\/english.hhu.ac.kr\/english\/03\/01.jsp)
\n\u03f4
\ninstalling confidence in them so they are able to go to sea as equal seafarers in a male
\ndominated environment. They have broken the all-male tradition which was a place
\nperceivably off-limits to females. Unsurprisingly, this of course was considered a
\nsignificant social issue and came to the forefront in the Korean media. The subject of
\nwomen seafarers in Korea as well in the global sense is no longer a new one.
\nThereafter, female students have continued to graduate from the KMU and also the
\nMokpo Maritime University (MMU). Currently, the total number of female students is
\n887 women as identified in Table 1. However, according to this research6
\n, women who
\nhave obtained seafarer-officer license and currently work onboard ship represent no
\nmore than approximately 50 women7
\nin the specific period time until 2010, 5.6 percent
\nof females having graduated from the Maritime University in Korea accordingly.
\n1.4.3 The Status of Women graduating from the maritime university in Korea
\nThe total number of graduated female students from the Korea College of Maritime
\nSciences is 464 today according to Table 1. Further female admission was limited to 10
\npercent of the students entering the Korea College of Maritime Sciences among 400
\nstudents total capacity per year under the entrance regulation policy. However, under a
\nmore recent entrance regulation policy it has currently admitted up to 15 percent females
\nfrom the total number of students.
\nIn the case of MMU, it has allowed up to 10 percent female admissions since 1999. The
\ntotal number of graduated female students is 388 female as identified in Table 1.
\nHowever, MMU announced in 2008 its plans to enhance the opportunity for admissions
\nof female students based upon a recommendation of the National Human Rights<\/p>\n
6
\nThis telephone survey included major shipping companies, seafarers manning companies during 21-24
\nJune, 2010.
\n7
\nSee chapter 3 \u2018The trend of women seafarers\u2019 employment.
\n\u03f5
\nCommission of Korea, which supports a progressive increase in female students (Kim,
\n2008).
\nTable 1 Status of graduated Maritime University female students
\nKorea Maritime University Mokpo Maritime University
\nMale
\nstudents
\nWomen
\nstudents
\nPercentage
\n% Total
\nNavigation
\nspecialization
\nwomen
\nstudents
\nEngine
\nspecialization
\nwomen
\nstudent
\nTotal
\nwomen
\nstudents
\n1995 341 1 0.3 342
\n1996 376 5 1.3 381
\n1997 364 6 1.6 370 17 7 24
\n1998 354 16 4.5 370 10 3 13
\n1999 355 23 6.5 378 16 6 22
\n2000 332 33 9.9 365 22 3 25
\n2001 301 49 16.3 350 34 7 41
\n2002 351 48 13.7 399 37 14 51
\n2003 334 20 6.0 354 22 16 38
\n2004 351 21 6.0 372 17 14 31
\n2005 329 20 6.1 349 17 14 31
\n2006 352 30 8.5 382 21 19 40
\n2007 314 30 9.6 344 15 15 30
\n2008 322 57 17.7 379 21 21 42
\n2009 321 56 17.4 377
\n2010 346 49 14.2 395
\nTotal 5443 464 8.5 5907 388
\nSource 1: Hwang S.J., IM N.K & Bae C.O. (2008). A study on analysis of the situation of employment
\nfor women at Mokpo Maritime University. The Korean Society Marine Environment and Study, 2008, 63-
\n67.
\nSource 2: Mokpo University & Korea Maritime University
\nFurther, there are similar examples of low female participation in global marine and
\nnautical schools or Institutions, where the ratio of male to female students represented is
\n\u03ed\u03ec
\n95:5 in the Netherlands and 96:4 in both Germany and the United Kingdom (Belcher et
\nal., 2003).
\nAccording to the study by Belcher et al.(2003), it is observed that the proportion of
\nenrolled female students among MET institutions in 2001 averages 10.8 percent females
\nagainst the total number of students among 13 MET institutions 8
\n. In fact, its data
\nincludes the crucial meaning that the participation of females in MET institutions is at a
\nlow level in general. As aforementioned in paragraph 1.4.2, the total number of women
\nseafarers currently employed on cargo ships compared to the total number of female
\ngraduated students currently seafarers employed on cargo ships, represents only a few
\npercent. The author raises the question as to how the female work force can be more
\nefficiently utilized in the maritime labor market; is being the main factor to increase
\nemployment and ensure women are retained to support an equal gender work
\nenvironment as discussed in later chapters.
\nThis research explores what estimate the supply and demand for seafarers is in terms of
\nglobal and national prospects in Chapter 2. Next in Chapter 3, how many women
\nseafarer are employed in worldwide merchant ships by type is classified of ship and
\naverage number of seafarers, as well as in the Korea labour market. Also the preference
\ntrend of maritime university students regarding seafaring is presented. Further, in
\nChapter 4, the international effort to develop and improve women\u2019s capacity through
\nIMO\u2019s activities inter alia is considered with a focus focuses on the effort toward women
\nin development by the Technical Cooperation Committee (TC). Consequently, the
\nauthor has conducted a survey of women who have experience at sea and are current<\/p>\n
8
\n13 MET institutions: FNB(Spain), SMU(China), CIAGA(Brazil), ITUMF(Turkey), AMA(Belgium),
\nTUMM(Japan), FMST(Slovenia), ENMM(France), SMS(Sweden), CMU(Romania), SIMA(Denmark),
\nENIDH(Portugal), GCMS(United Kingdom), Source from Belcher, P., Sampson H., Thomas M., Veiga
\nJ., & Zhao M. (2003). Women Seafarers: global employment policies and practices. pp 14, table 5
\n(Women students enrolled in MET institutions in 2001).
\n\u03ed\u03ed
\nseafarers to identify the problems relating to recruitment and retention of female
\nseafarers in Chapter 5. In Chapter 6, the author analyses the result of questionnaires and
\nin-depth interviews to provide a breakthrough to these problems, as well as the way to
\nimprove the work environment surrounding these seafarers lives at sea.
\nFinally, through the results of the survey and analysis, the author responds answers in
\nChapter 7 according to previous questions from the beginning of this paper: why a duty
\nofficer who is a female seafarer would feel afraid so that she tries to be masculine in her
\nwork place instead of accepting her feminine characteristics as in a normal work
\nenvironment. However, the conclusion focuses on CSR to improve the working
\nenvironment for women seafarers, in order to recruit and retain them as seafarers.
\n\u03ed\u03ee
\nChapter 2 The worldwide labor market for seafarers<\/p>\n
2.1 The present world commercial fleets
\n80 percent of world trade is carried by seaborne trade (UNCTAD, 2009). Without
\nreservation, the seaborne trade by commercial fleets is a crucially important factor to
\ntransfer high volumes of cargo. Under such circumstances, the number of seafarers is
\nimportant as contributors that enables us to maritime safety, and prevent pollution keep
\nenvironment clean.
\nBefore examining the worldwide maritime labour market for seafarers, a review of
\ntoday\u2019s\u2019 commercial fleet trends is in order. According to Bansal (2009), shipping
\ntonnage increased from 85 million gross tonnages in 1948 to over 685 million gross
\ntonnages by 2007.
\nA other report, the Review of Maritime Transport by UNCTAD (2009), reported in 2009
\nthat the deadweight tonnage of oil tankers increased by 2.5 percent and that of bulk
\ncarriers by 7.0 percent from January 2008 to 2009. The fleet of container ships grew by
\n17.3 million deadweight, or 11.9 percent. Other specialized types of ships have also
\nindicated high growth rates such as the tonnage of liquefied gas carriers grew by 21.1
\npercent, and that of offshore supply vessels grew by 9.1 percent. The tonnage on general
\ncargo ships has increased by 7 percent, dry and liquid bulk tonnage by 52 and 48 percent
\nrelatively, and containerized tonnage by an impressive 154 percent.
\nAlso according to Jordan (2010), an analysis of global fleet statistics for the
\nInternational Union of Marine Insurance in 2010, the number of tanker fleets, bulk
\ncarrier fleets and container fleet have continued their growth as identified in Figure 1. In
\naddition, Figure 2 describes the combination of all the number of merchant fleets in
\n\u03ed\u03ef
\norder to identify this vividly. Figures indicate the trends of world fleet growth and vessel
\ntypes.
\nTanker fleet (DWT) Bulkcarrier fleet (DWT) Containership and Multipurpose
\nFleet (DWT)
\nSource: Jordan D.K., World fleet information: Global fleet statistics for IUMI as at 1st January 2010.
\nNote: Each fleet is on the left-hand axis and deliveries and scrapping figures are on the right-hand axis.
\nFigure 1 Historical development of a number of fleets in the world
\nSource: Jordan D.K., World fleet information: Global fleet statistics for IUMI as at 1st January 2010.
\nNote: All fleet totals are on the left-hand axis and deliveries and scrapping figures are on the right-hand
\naxis.
\nFigure 2 Historical development of a number of fleets in the world- Tanker, Bulk carrier,
\nContainership and Multipurpose Fleet
\n\u03ed\u03f0
\nOverall, the world fleet has only slightly increased nowadays as evidenced in the above
\ndata and figures. Meanwhile, the international shipping industry is facing a shortage of
\nseafarers despite the increase in the worldwide fleet, which is a similar phenomenon
\naffecting the Korean maritime labor market. Absolutely, the growing shortage of
\nseafarers has become a hot issue of global concern in recent years.
\n2.2 Demands for seafarers in the world
\n2.2.1 Calculation of the demand for seafarers 2010 and 2020
\nA new study by the Japan International Transport Institute & the Nippon Foundation
\n(JITI & NF) (2010) identified how the unexpected elements of recent history have
\naffected what was previously taken to be a major shortfall in seafarers (Leander, 2010).
\nAccording to the study of JITI & NF which has been referred to Lloyd\u2019s RegisterFairplay, the total number of world fleets in January 2010 was 35,623 ships as per Table
\n2.
\nTable 2 The number of world fleets by ship size (GRT) and ship type in 2010
\nGross Tonnage Tanker Bulk Carrier Dry Cargo &
\nPassenger
\nTotal
\n2,000-4,999 2,432 367 6,185 8,984 25.2 %
\n5,000-9,999 1,454 374 4,206 6,034 16.9 %
\n10,000-49,999 3,444 6,249 5,976 15,669 44.0 %
\n50,000-99,999 1,436 981 1,461 3,878 10.9 %
\n100,000-149,999 248 145 104 497 1.4 %
\n150,000-1999,999 499 37 20 556 1.6 %
\n200,000 and over 4 0 1 5 0.0 %
\nTotal (%) 9,517(26.7) 8,153(22.9) 17,953(50.4 ) 35,623(100) 100.0 %
\nSource: Japan International Transport Institute & the Nippon Foundation (2010) based on Lloyd\u2019s
\nRegister \u2013 Fairplay, Oct. 2009
\n\u03ed\u03f1
\nThus, according to the JITI & NF (2010) study, it is estimated that the demand for
\nseafarers in the world fleets in 2010 as multiplied by the setting of standard manning
\nnumbers of ship type and size with the total number of world fleets is as follows in Table
\n2 and Table 3. The result of the multiplication of Table 2 and in Table 3 is as identified
\nTable 4.
\nTable 3 Setting of standard manning numbers by ship type and size
\nOfficer Rating
\nShip type
\nDeck Engine Deck Engine Catering
\nTotal
\n2,000-7,999 GT 4 4 4 4 2 18
\nVLCC 5 5 6 7 3 26
\nLNG Tanker 5 6 8 8 3 30
\nLPG\/Chemical\/Product
\nTanker
\n4 5
\n5 5
\n3 22
\nOther Tanker 4 5 5 5 3 22
\nBulk Carrier 4 4 5 5 3 21
\nContainer 4 5 5 6 3 23
\n8,000GRT and over
\nOther Dry Cargo 4 4 5 5 3 21
\nSource: Japan International Transport Institute & the Nippon Foundation (2010).
\nTherefore, the demand for seafarers in 2010 identified in Table 4 basis on the capacity of
\nship is 1,093,968 seafarers including the backup ratio of seafarers as 50 percent.
\nTable 4 An estimated demand for seafarers of the world fleets in 2010
\n2,000-
\n7,999GT
\n8,000GT and
\nover
\nSubtotal Backup (50%) Total
\nOfficer 103,192 193,511 296,703 148,352 445,055
\nRating 128,990 303,619 432,609 216,305 648,914
\nTotal 232,182 497,130 729,312 364,656 1,093,968
\nSource: Japan International Transport Institute & the Nippon Foundation (2010).
\n\u03ed\u03f2
\nFurther, the study of JITI & NF (2010) shows the 2010 number of seafarers and the
\ndemand for seafarers that will be needed in 2020. The demand is calculated considering
\nthe legal setting of standard manning numbers by ship type and size as shown in Figure 3.
\nFurthermore between 2010 and 2020 is expected an annual average growth rate of the world
\nfleet of 0.7 percent9
\n. It is calculated that there will be 35,623 ships in the world fleet in
\n2010, and it is estimated that the number of the world fleet will increase up to 38,197
\nships by 2020, as identified in Figure 3.
\nIn addition, the demand for seafarers in 2020 was calculated multiplying the values of
\nTable 3 (Setting of standard manning numbers by ship type and size) and the expected
\nannual average growth of the world fleet of 0.7 percent. Therefore, the study of JITI &
\nNF (2010) estimated the demand for seafarers in 2020 to be 445,055 for officers and
\n648,914 for ratings as identified in Table 5.
\nSource: Japan International Transport Institute & the Nippon Foundation (2010) based on
\nLloyd\u2019s Register \u2013 Fairplay, Oct. 2009
\nFigure 3 Prospects for future world fleets until 2020, based on the actual number of the world
\ncommercial fleets 2010<\/p>\n
9
\nAccording to the study of JITI & NF (2010), it is noticed that the 2000 to 2004 averaged growth rates in
\nthe number of the world fleet is 0.8 percent. It is predicted that the figure 0.8 percent will go down to the
\nextent of the decrease in real GDP in the long term perspective. Therefore the study of JITI & NF (2010)
\nthe annual average growth rate in number of the world fleet between 2010 and 2020 was set at 0.7
\npercent. Source from Japan International Transport Institute & The Nippon Foundation. (2010, May).
\n\u03ed\u03f3
\nTable 5 Predicted demands for seafarers in the world fleets in 2020
\n2,000-
\n7,999GT
\n8,000GT
\nand over
\nSubtotal Backup
\n(50%)
\nTotal
\n(2020)
\nA
\nTotal
\n(2010)
\nB
\nDeficit
\n(A-B)
\nOfficer 110,647 207,492 318,139 159,069 477,208 445,055 32,153
\nRating 138,309 325,554 463,864 231,932 695,795 648,914 46,881
\nTotal 248,956 533,046 782,002 391,001 1,173,004 1,093,968 79,036
\nSource: Japan International Transport Institute & the Nippon Foundation. (2010)
\nFor the above Table 5, it is clear that an additional 32,153 Officers in number in 2010
\nagainst 2020, and 46, 881 Ratings with a deficit of 7.2 percent for both officers and
\nratings will arise by 2020. This study calculates the demand that includes a modest
\ngrowth of the global commercial fleet and a minimal effect of cancellations and
\nscrapping coming out of the economic crisis (Leander, 2010).
\nOn the other hand, while the JITI & NF study has identified the prospect of the demand
\nfor seafarers in 2010 and 2020, it has not provided for the current seafarers supply.
\nAccording to the 2005 BIMCO and ISF manpower study, it is estimated that the
\nworldwide supply of seafarers in 2005 was 466,000 officers and 721,000 ratings. At that
\ntime, the current estimate of worldwide demand for seafarers was 476,000 officers and
\n586,000 ratings. Consequently, the 2005 worldwide shortfall of seafarers indicated
\n10,000 officers or a 2 percent deficit.
\nMeanwhile, the 2000 BIMCO and ISF manpower study, estimated that the number of
\nofficers in the world fleets was 404,000 against a demand for 420,000, which revealed a
\ndeficit of 4 percent.
\n\u03ed\u03f4
\n2.3 Current labour conditions of seafarers in Korea
\nThe majority of Korean seafarer employees registered in Korea flag ships is 68.7 percent
\nas identified in Table 6.
\nTable 6 The percentage of Korean seafarers working on Nationality vessels
\nFlag Percentage % Flag Percentage % Flag Percentage %
\nRep. of Korea 68.7 Cambodia 0.7 Philippines 0.4
\nPanama 9.3 Malaysia 0.7 Germany 0.3
\nVanuatu 6.9 Bahamas 0.5 Singapore 0.1
\nMarshall
\nIslands
\n1.1 Cyprus 0.4 Other 9.7
\nHongkong 0.8 Liberia 0.4
\nSource: Ellis, N. & Simpson, H. The global labour market for seafarers working aboard merchant cargo
\nship (2008).
\nBased on the annual seafarers\u2019 statistics by the Korea Seafarer\u2019s Welfare & Employment
\nCenter 10 (KSWEC) in 2009, the rate of unemployment of seafarers is gradually
\nincreasing, with the number of unemployed seafarers being below 1,500 except in 2006.
\nHowever, surprisingly, in 2009, the level of unemployment of seafarers peaked
\ndramatically, at 1,743 since 2000 according to Table 7. Table 7 and Figure 4 illustrate
\nthe statistics and trends for unemployment of seafarers in today\u2019s Korean labour market.
\nTaking into account the considerations in the above Table 7, these statistics are a direct
\nexample that reflects the labour supply being greater than the demand in the Korean<\/p>\n
\u03ed\u03ec Korea Seafarer\u2019s Welfare & Employment Center has been established to promote the welfare of
\n100,000 seafarers since 1980 under the Seaman Law Article 122. Its main affairs are promotion of
\nwelfare, giving jobs and employment information, supporting affairs for seafarers stable employment,
\nJob searching and offers.
\n\u03ed\u03f5
\nmaritime labor market. Simply, it indicates that the market trend reflects a slight over
\nsupply of seafarers, which is in contrast to the global trend.
\nTable 7 Statistics for the unemployment of seafarers per year in Korea
\nOfficer Rating
\nYear Total
\nSub
\ntotal Deck Engine Radio Sub
\ntotal Deck Engine Catering
\n2000 1,413 696 374 320 2 717 366 214 137
\n2001 1,287 678 340 336 2 609 317 154 138
\n2002 1,184 645 346 294 5 539 268 143 128
\n2003 1,463 859 475 379 5 604 282 151 171
\n2004 1,067 569 337 231 1 498 253 119 126
\n2005 1,172 675 401 274 497 269 111 117
\n2006 1,692 933 603 330 759 340 145 274
\n2007 1,480 762 429 330 3 718 353 167 198
\n2008 1,480 931 538 393 549 288 101 160
\n2009 1,743 1,230 765 465 513 184 120 209
\nSource: Korea Seafarer\u2019s Welfare & Employment Center, Annual Seafarers Statistics in 2009.
\nSource: Korea Seafarer\u2019s Welfare & Employment Center, Annual Seafarers Statistics in 2009.
\nFigure 4 Statistics for the unemployment of seafarers per year in Korea
\n\u03ee\u03ec
\nIn addition, according to the study by Hwang (2008a), the supply is slightly higher than
\nthe demand which defines that the number of registered employees by company as
\ndemonstrated in Table 8. Depending on the statistics; it is clear that the supply is greater
\nthan the demand as the trend shows in Table 7 and Figure 4 above.
\nHowever, another point that we must ram home constantly is that how many seafarers
\nand shipping companies are registered on KSWEC in reality. Therefore, in general from
\na practical point view, these statistics might not contain the actual need to seek jobs and
\nseafarers (Ibid). For example, in the case of major shipping companies, they used to put
\nemployment needs in the commercial media, recruit from internet sites or in more
\nproactive commercial ways attract seafarers, as well as post job openings according to
\ntheir own company\u2019s employment policy rather than through the register on KSWEC.
\nTable 8 Status of seafarers by supply and demand in Korea, in 2007
\nSupply 11 Demand12 Over and Short
\nofficer Deck Officer 5,058 4,455 603
\nEngineer Officer 4,350 4,020 330
\nRadio operator 18 17 1
\nrating Deck part 2,604 1,990 614
\nEngine part 996 851 145
\ntotal 3,600 2,841 759
\nTotal 13,026 11,333 1,693
\nSource: Hwang J.H. (2008a). The analysis of the current supply and demand for seafarers in Korea and
\npolicy issue based on data from Korea Seafarer\u2019s Welfare & Employment Center, \u300eAnnual Seafarers
\nStatistics\u300f,2007<\/p>\n
11 Number of registered job seekers at the Korea Seafarer\u2019s Welfare & Employment Center 12 Number of registered workers by company at the Korea Seafarer\u2019s Welfare & Employment Center
\n\u03ee\u03ed
\nFrom a practical point of view, although the supply and demand for seafarers might
\ncoexist compared to the statistics currently available, shipping companies can explain
\nthat the sensory level of the maritime labour market has such a disparity between supply
\nand demand. There is still plenty of room in the gap of shortage seafarers in the Korean
\nlabour market.
\nUnder the this circumstance of the shortfall of seafarers, the Haesa Information (2007)
\npress release compared the status of available seafarers with the number of increased
\nvessels, which showed that the ships are increasing constantly at 11.4 percent by per
\nyear, while the rate of available seafarers declined 4.8 percent over same period in the
\npast 5 years. In comparison with Table 9, the increasing ratio of the number of available
\nseafarers is remarkably smaller than the increasing ratio of the number of merchant
\nvessels.
\nTable 9 Comparison between status of Merchant Ships and available Seafarers in 2003-2008
\nStatus of Merchant
\nVessel Available seafarers states
\nNo. Gross
\ntonnage
\nTotal
\nAvailable
\nseafarers Employed
\nseafarers
\nReserved
\nseafarers
\nUnempl
\noyed
\nseafarers
\nSub
\nback
\nup
\nratio
\n%
\nTotal
\nBack up
\nratio %
\n2003 415 11,460 8.663 7,072 732 859 10.4 22.5
\n2004 475 12,586 8,770 7,362 839 569 11.4 19.1
\n2005 537 13,455 9,028 7,638 715 675 9.4 18.2
\n2006 578 14,269 9,426 7,707 786 933 10.2 22.3
\n2007 704 17,850 9,794 8,240 792 762 9.6 18.9
\n2008 786 21,378 10,648 8,883 834 931 9.4 19.1
\nSource 1: Korea Seafarer\u2019s Welfare & Employment Center, Annual Seafarers Statistics in 2003-2008.
\nSource2: Korea Shipowners\u2019 Association, The statistics of Maritime, 2009.
\nNote: Merchant Vessels only for officer (Ocean-going Korean Flag + Foreign-flag Vessels)
\n\u03ee\u03ee
\n2.4 Prospects for the demand and supply of seafarers in the future
\nA more detailed project ( help with nursing paper writing from experts with MSN & DNP degrees) study regarding the prospect of supply and demand for seafarers
\nin 2020 was undertaken by the Korea Maritime Institute for Korea Ship owners\u2019
\nAssociation in 2008. This research anticipates a shortfall of supply against demand for
\nseafarers of 1,521 by the year 2010 and of 6,129 by the year 2020 without the various
\nfactors which will be observed in the world economy between 2010 and 2020 (Jo, 2008).
\nSource: Jo E. A. Marine powerful led Korea, but supply shortfall of seafarers, 2008
\nNote: not included the impact of the decreasing worldwide commercial fleets according
\nto the world financial crisis
\nFigure 5 Prospect for supply and demand of seafarers in the Korean maritime labor market
\nOther data is calculated including the impact on the decreasing worldwide commercial
\nfleets according to the current world financial crisis, this study forecasted the deficit of
\n1,431 by the year 2010, and of 3.188 by the year 2012, and finally of 4,133 by the year
\n2020 as indicated in the above graph in Figure 5. Therefore, as mentioned earlier, the
\nmost up-to-date estimated trend for global seafarer supply and demand is unbalanced.
\nThe overall scale of demand for Officers might be higher than predicted in some years,
\nand seafarer demand might be significantly higher than predicted in previous years.
\n\u03ee\u03ef
\nThe current estimate suggests a severe shortage of qualified seafarers has created a
\nsignificant issue in the global maritime market; and further in the Korean maritime labor
\nmarket. These statistics on the Korean maritime labor market indicate the shortfall of
\nseafarers and the unbalance between the supply and demand for seafarers in the near
\nfuture. How will the supply of seafarers meet the demand? And what will be impact of
\nsuch a of shortage seafarers in such a market? The answer is undoubtedly an urgent need
\nto recruit and retain more qualified seafarers in order to meet the existing and future
\ndemands.
\n2.5 The impact of the global shortage seafarers
\nWe are able to speculate easily that if the shortfall of seafarers will be more severe than
\nin past years, these problems will influence national competiveness, as well as the global
\nstatus of \u2018Korea Maritime\u2019.
\nThe maritime industry contributes to the advancement of the economy, technology and
\nsocial labor markets. At this time, Korea is ranked as the seventh largest flag of
\nregistration in the world with 1,235 ships13 and 46,623,226 deadweight tonnage,14 as of
\n1 January 2009 according to UNCTAD15 (2009). In fact, it should be noted again that
\nthe Korean Maritime industry creates a higher added value compared to other national
\nbusinesses.
\nNevertheless, in such market conditions, however, the recent safety problems on ships
\nare caused by a shortage of qualified seafarers to manage ship manning properly.<\/p>\n
13 Compiled the number of vessels with national flag and foreign flags.
\n\u03ed\u03f0 Compiled the deadweight tonnage of vessels with national flag and foreign flags.
\n15 See the reference, Review of Maritime Transport 2009 by UNCTAD , from
\nhttps:\/\/monkessays.com\/write-my-essay\/unctad.org\/en\/docs\/rmt2009_en.pdf
\n\u03ee\u03f0
\n\u201cThe use of unqualified seafarers onboard is due to a shortfall of seafarers
\nnowadays that has been caused by ship mis-handling and managing improperly
\nand occasional serious disturbances.\u201d
\nThe above statement was made by Kim, the secretary of the Federation of Korean
\nSeafarers\u2019 Unions (Jo, 2008).
\nAccording to this research interview the concerned human resources manager16 for one
\nof Korea\u2019s major shipping companies, said,
\n\u201cTo obtain sufficient seafarers continuously and manage manning without a hitch,
\nwe have to employed many foreign seafarers, however, they occasionally make
\nmistakes while onboard.\u201d (Ibid)
\n2.6 Possible measures to secure the quantity and quality of seafarers
\nIn order to satisfy the supply and demand of qualified seafarers and attract seafarers into
\nthe shipping industry, the measures of national policies, as well the global efforts, have
\nrecommended secured aspects of improvement of the environment surrounding
\nseafarers, such as wages, more opportunity for training and education, and improved
\nliving conditions. All efforts to attract seafarers have indicated such policies will
\nimprove the solutions. However, among these solutions, in fact there has as yet been no
\nproactive recommendation respecting the potential value of utilizing more women
\nseafarers. Why is this not a focus of attention?<\/p>\n
16 Interviewed the H shipping company\u2019s\u2019 manager, source from: Jo E. A. (2008, October 28). Marine
\npowerful led Korea, but supply shortfall of seafarers. Dong A. Retrieved June 12, 2010 from the World
\nWide Web: https:\/\/monkessays.com\/write-my-essay\/donga.com\/fbin\/output?n=200810280046
\n\u03ee\u03f1
\nFemale seafarers have a sufficient potential ability to be qualified officers in the
\nshipping industry. However, the crucial problem is that they transfer to shore-based jobs
\nsooner than male seafarers who have an obligatory three-year on-board working17
\narrangement according to Korea\u2019s obligation to protect the country.
\nWhy do women seafarers decide to leave work at sea? In fact, most maritime university
\nstudents have been trained and educated under special programs such as the military
\nover a four year period including one year training onboard. Both female and male
\nstudents have the same background without distinguishing different sexual issues.
\nRegardless of their background, what makes women hesitate about working at sea?
\nTherefore, this dissertation attempts to address the problems of women at sea, and will
\nrecommend areas where the shipping industry, which is based on CSR, can provide
\nsolutions to attract women to stay longer at sea as seafarers.<\/p>\n
17 All able-bodied men over 19 of the Republic of Korea are required to serve in the military for 24-27
\nmonths. However, the graduated university students have an obligatory to board work instead of serving
\nin the military.
\n\u03ee\u03f2
\nChapter 3 The trend of women seafarers\u2019 employment
\n3.1 Current women seafarers\u2019 occupation
\nBelcher et al.(2003), researched women seafarers and indicated that the participation rate
\nof women in seafaring remains relatively small compared with male seafarers in the
\nworld. According to their study, it has been estimated that women represent only 1 to 2
\npercent of the world\u2019s 1.25 million seafarers and that most of these women are from
\ndeveloped countries. Thus, the largest number of women is found working as hotel staff
\nof passenger ships, particularly on cruise ships and ferries. Unfortunately, there is no
\nofficial data and an analysis of women seafarers from any global research center or any
\nrelated and\/or involved investigation organization. Therefore, it is worth noting
\nobviously that in order to encourage women to go to sea, it should be understood and
\nrecognized how few women seafarers are participating in the maritime world by
\ndifferent ship type and region, country and company. This effort on women seafarers
\nshould be continued thereby enabling and encouraging them on a global basis.
\n3.1.1 Employment of women by ship type and distribution by rank
\nAs shown in the following figures, according to Belcher et al., (2003) based on the
\nSIRC\/ILO Survey, it is found that the great majority of the world\u2019s women seafarers (94
\npercent18) are employed aboard passenger ships as officers as well as ratings. The 2003\u2019s
\nstudy above indicated that 68 percent of all the women (3,554) work on ferries,
\noverwhelmingly the highest number, and 26 percent on cruise ships with just small
\nportion of 6 percent on cargo ships.<\/p>\n
18 The study divided passenger ships into two sectors: cruise ships and ferry ship types.
\n\u03ee\u03f3
\nNevertheless, as mentioned in paragraph 3.1, unfortunately, no survey has been
\nconducted regarding the actual population size of women seafarers in the global labour
\nmarket by any international organization since the SIRC survey was completed in 2003.
\nIn addition, in the case of Korea, there is no data on women seafarers respecting
\noccupation on type of ships in such organizations as the KSMWEC and the Ministry of
\nLand, Transportation and Maritime Affairs. Even though it might be difficult to collect
\ndata from all the countries where women seafarers have been recorded, this data would
\nobviously be a crucial cornerstone towards identifying the number of women amongst
\nthe overall number of seafarers, and ameliorating and providing appropriate support and
\npolicies from the industry and community.
\nIn contrast, in the case of the Danish Maritime Authority, seafarers have been recorded
\nin a computerized database since 1 April 1986. It is compulsory for shipping companies
\nto record and manage each time a seafarer is signed on or off a ship under the Danish
\nflag and send a copy to the authorities (Hansen, H.L. & Jensen, J., 1998). Therefore, it is
\nworthwhile noting that a broader global effort is needed to collect data relating to
\nwomen seafarers in order to recognize how the occupational distribution of women
\nseafarers in the world and on what types of ships.
\nSource: Belcher, Sampson, Thomas, Veiga, and Zhao Women Seafarers: global
\nemployment policies and practices. ILO, 2003
\nFigure 6 Employment of women by ship type and distribution by rank in the world
\n\u03ee\u03f4
\nAs mentioned above, in the case of Korea, there is no particular existing data regarding
\nwomen ratings. In general, the route through which women become seafarers is to enroll
\nin the maritime university or Korea Institute of Maritime and Fisheries Technology.
\nAfter graduation the majority who attain a qualified license might become a 3rd officer
\nor 3rd engineer, not a rating. Consequently, the rate of Korean women officers is
\nremarkably higher than the study by Belcher et al., (2003) based on the SIRC seafarers
\ndatabase which identifies the number of women ratings as higher than women officers in
\nthe rest world, as illustrated in Figure 6. According the study by Belcher et al., (2003), it
\nis indicated that 93 percent of ratings originate mostly from ferries and cruise ships, not
\njust cargo ships.
\n3.2 Current Korean women seafarers\u2019 occupation in the global merchant ship market
\nIn commercial shipping companies, the proportion level of women is extremely low.
\nThe author surveyed major Korean shipping companies19 registered in various parts of
\nthe world, through telephone interviews with responsible human resource managers or
\nseafarer manning managers during 21-24 June, 2010. The author found many major
\nshipping companies where women have been present and identified as shown below in
\nTable 10, where roughly 50 are women. Table 10 lists a sample of the companies that
\nemploy women in merchant fleets. Furthermore, it identifies the proportion of women
\nseafarers in 1.96 percent against the total of Korean seafarer officers in A-I shipping
\ncompanies.<\/p>\n
\u03ed\u03f5 The author selected major shipping companies which most of the graduated maritime university
\nstudents apply have applied in\u0358
\n\u03ee\u03f5
\nTable 10 Women seafarers employed in shipping companies, 2010
\nCompany Description
\nTotal
\nnumber of
\nfleets
\nTotal
\nKorean
\nofficer
\nWomen
\nseafarers
\nPercentage
\n%
\nA Foreign Flag vessels 47 211 0 0
\nB Foreign Flag vessels 77 232 0 0
\nC Foreign Flag vessels 65 248 4 1.6
\nD Foreign Flag vessels 56 275 0 0
\nE Foreign Flag vessels 88 543 0 0
\nF Ocean going Korean Flag 31 201 10 5.0
\nG Ocean going Korean Flag 43 312 10 3.2
\nH Ocean going Korean Flag
\n+ Foreign Flag vessels
\n102 540 18
\n3.3
\nI Ocean going Korean Flag 79 498 8 1.6
\nTotal 455 2553 50 1.96
\nSource : survey by Sohyun Jo, based on Korea Seafarer\u2019s Welfare & Employment Center, ship and crew
\nresearch, 2010
\nNote : Among ocean going Korean Flag and Foreign Flag vessels, collected and listed the companies that
\nhave more than 200 in the total number of officers.
\nThe research found that the total number of ships in Korean shipping companies
\nincluding ocean going Korea Flag and Foreign Flag vessels, are 2,226 ships20, and
\nKorean officers are 9,452 officers21. Amongst the total of 9,452 officers on cargo fleets
\nin Korea, the shipping companies employed 50 women seafarers, 0.52 percent of the
\ntotal number of seafarers.
\nSimilarly, Belcher et al., (2003) based on the SIRC Survey in 2001, investigated cargo
\nshipping companies registered in various parts of the world and received 37 responses<\/p>\n
20 Source : Korea Seafarer\u2019s Welfare & Employment Center, ship and crew research, 2010
\n21 Source : Korea Seafarer\u2019s Welfare & Employment Center, ship and crew research, 2010
\n\u03ef\u03ec
\nfrom companies. The survey found that the companies employed 212 women seafarers
\n(0.76 percent) among a total of 27, 541 seafarers on cargo fleets in the world. In the
\nPhilippine case, there were 25 officers of a total 6,619 women in 2006 and the majority
\nwere onboard passenger ships or cruise liners. (Nieva, 2008) Surprisingly, according to
\nthe Philippine overseas Employment Administration (POEA), the number of Filipino
\nwomen seafarers rose by 2.7 percent, from 6,436 in 2006 to 6,619 in 2007. Whilst, the
\nnumber of their male counterparts dropped by 2.6 percent to 216,874 in 2007 from
\n222,575 in 2006 (Ibid).
\nIn the Korean case, the employment of women seafarers is relatively low compared to
\nthe global level. Both of the two samples represent those women who onboard the world
\nmerchant fleet is comparatively the lowest participation rate of the total number of
\nseafarers in the world, whereupon women\u2019s participation rate is quite unbalanced and
\nquite unequal compared with male seafarer proportions in general.
\nThis study aims to identify what problems women seafarers face and identify a better
\nsolution to improve these situation on cargo ships. For this reason, the author has been
\ntrying to research how many women hold an Officer\u2019s license and what grade they have
\nattained, as well as length of experience as officers onboard. However, it is very difficult
\nto collect and classify data into minor categorization groups from the relevant
\norganizations and companies. In general, it seems that the relevant organizations have
\ninsufficient data.
\n3.2.1 The age of women seafarers
\nAccording to the study of Belcher et al., (2003) based on the SIRC Survey, the age
\nprofiles of seafarers shows that the average age is 33.2 for all seafarers, 35.4 for men and
\n31.5 for women. However, it is ambiguous to compare these numbers with the average
\n\u03ef\u03ed
\nage of Korean women seafarers who are employed on cargo ships, because this study
\nincluded the average age of women employed on cruise, ferry, and cargo ships together.
\nFurthermore, this research found that the majority of Korean women seafarers are going
\nto sea as officers directly when they graduate from the Maritime University. They then
\nwork onboard ships for an average of 2 to 3 years in the merchant ship fleets according
\nto author\u2019s research. Therefore, the study of Belcher et al., (2003) compared with
\nKorean women seafarers, on average we see they are, three or four years younger than in
\nthis study, as Figure 7 indicates. In addition, it is assumed that the high intensive
\ndistribution of the average age of women seafarers is between 25 and 30 years old.
\nSource 1: Belcher, P., Sampson H., Thomas M., Veiga J., & Zhao M. (2003). Women Seafarers: global
\nemployment policies and practices.
\nSource 2: surveyed by Sohyun Jo, 2010
\nFigure 7 Age profile of women seafarers (Lift) by Belcher et al., (2003) and Careers profile of
\nKorean women seafarers (Right)
\n\u03ef\u03ee
\n3.2.2 Type of ship employing women seafarers
\nAs mentioned in paragraph 3.2 Table 10; women seafarers employed in major shipping
\ncompanies, it might be assumed what type of ship most women are on board currently.
\nAccording to such evidence, the majority of women seafarers work on container ships,
\nbulk carriers and car carriers which the author explains in more detail in Chapter 5.
\n3.3 Preference trend of Maritime University students regarding seafaring
\nEarlier in this chapter, the author identified the number of female seafarers participating
\nin cargo fleets in Korea. Interestingly, the only available data and analysis are the
\nestimated employment of graduated women students of Mokpo Maritime University
\n(MMU) by Hwang, S.J., IM, N.K & Bae, C.O. (2008).
\nIn the following Figure 9, Hwang S.J et al., (2008) have summarized data from
\ntelephone interviews with 138 female graduate students of MMU amongst a total
\nnumber of 388 female graduates, indicating the current levels of employment of women
\nin the maritime industry from 2002 to 2008. The study indicates that most women are
\noccupying relevant roles on shore in the respective shipping companies and only 8
\npercent female are onboard ships currently. However, according to this study, the
\nparticipation in seafaring is gradually increasing compared with previous years, from 4
\njust under 8 percent. Figure 8, indicates that most women are working in shipping
\ncompanies (47 percent), in postgraduate studying (12 percent), in ship building yards (11
\npercent), in the Korea Coast Guard (9 percent).
\n\u03ef\u03ef
\nSource: Hwang S.J., IM N.K & Bae C.O. (2008). A study on analysis of the situation of employment for
\nwomen at Mokpo Maritime University.
\nFigure 8 The status of employment of women graduated students of MMU (2002 \u2013 2008) \u2013 Left
\nFigure 9 Preference of future employment students of MMU, 2008 \u2013 Right
\nIn addition, Hwang S.J et al., (2008) conducted questionnaires to enrolled females in
\ntheir first, second and fourth years of MMU during November 1, 2008 to November 15,
\n2008, regarding their preference of future jobs after graduation from university. Over 36
\npercent of these females chose a government officer position as their favorite future job
\nas indicated in Figure 9. On the similar numerical value, a job in a shipping company is
\nthe 2nd favorite future job, at 31 percent. Surprisingly, 7 percent choose a seafaring job
\nindicating; they would like to be a seafarer after graduating from the maritime university.
\nThis may reflect a present trend towards women in seafaring in the shipping industry.
\nThus, the author would like to explore the reasons for the low preference of seafaring as
\na future job in the above study.
\n\u03ef\u03f0
\nChapter 4 Policy and practices of IMO towards female employment
\nThis chapter examines the policy and practices for female employment in the shipping
\nindustry focusing on IMO\u2019s activities as the international regulatory body which has
\nbecome increasingly influential within the maritime industry. The reason for the focus of
\nthe author on IMO activities towards women at the global level is in order to focus on
\nseveral specific issues which surround employment with women as evident in the
\nauthor\u2019s survey.
\n4.1 International Maritime Organization
\nThe International Maritime Organization (IMO), as a United Nations (UN) specialized
\nagency, is to promote safe, secure, environmentally sound, efficient and safer shipping.
\nThe organization\u2019s body22 aims are to establish a universal and uniform application, such
\nas the highest practicable standards to update existing legislation or develop and adopt
\nnew regulations. In summary, IMO\u2019s mission is to foster better \u2018safe, secure and
\nefficient shipping on clean oceans.\u2019 (IMO, 2010a; IMO A 26\/Res. 1011, 2010).
\nOne of the missions of IMO, the holistic approach to the integration of women into all
\nlevels of political, economic and social development, was introduced in 1988 with the
\napproval of the \u2018Strategy of the Integration of Women in the Maritime Sector\u2019 as the two
\npriority objectives, in accordance with the UN\u2019s key recommendations on human<\/p>\n
22 IMO’s specialized committees and sub-committees are the focus for the technical, practical work to
\nupdate existing legislation or develop and adopt new regulations, with meetings attended by maritime
\nexperts from Member Governments, together with those from interested intergovernmental and nongovernmental organizations. The Organization is organized in an Assembly, a Council and five main
\nCommittees and a number of Sub-Committees support the work of the main technical committees.
\nSource from IMO. Retrieved June 16, 2010 from the World Wide Web: https:\/\/monkessays.com\/write-my-essay\/imo.org.
\n\u03ef\u03f1
\nresources development and capacity-building (IMO TC 58\/7\/1, 2008; IMO TC 47\/8,
\n1999; IMO,1998). Thus, the whole aspect of development for women became a
\nmainstream element of the Organization\u2019s Integrated Technical Co-operation
\nProgramme (ITCP), inter alia, under the Technical Co-operation Committee (TC) (Ibid).
\nIn 1988, the IMO launched the Strategy for Women in Development (WID) in order to
\nintegrate women into the mainstream maritime sector, as well as to promote the
\nendorsement of gender considerations, throughout its detailed purpose of WID23(Tansey,
\n2010).
\nIn 1990, the issue of the integration of women in the maritime Sector became a regular
\nitem on the agenda of the Technical Co-operation Committee, (IMO TC 58\/7\/1, 2008)
\nand approved the strategic plan as follow, (IMO TC 47\/8, 1999; IMO, 1999)
\n1. IMO Medium Term Plan for the Integration of Women in the Maritime Sector
\n1992 to 1996; and
\n2. Action Programme for Equal Opportunities and Advancement of Women in
\nthe Maritime Sector 1997 to 2001
\nIn accordance with IMO TC 47\/8 (Women in Development by the Secretariat, 1999), the
\nWID Programme has been subsumed into the ITCP as a cross-sectoral issue which is
\ncentral to the strengthening of national and regional maritime capacities. The mechanism
\nfor implementing the Programme\u2019s objectives is to focus on equal access to training
\nthrough both mainstream programmes24 and gender \u2013 specific project ( help with nursing paper writing from experts with MSN & DNP degrees)s25.<\/p>\n
23 The purpose of WID is in order to integrate women into mainstream maritime activities; to improve
\nwomen’s access to maritime training and technology; to increase the percentage of women at the senior
\nmanagement level within the maritime sector; and to promote women’s economic self-reliance,
\nincluding access to employment.
\n\u03ee\u03f0 These project ( help with nursing paper writing from experts with MSN & DNP degrees)s seek to integrate women in mainstream sectoral initiatives of IMO. Integrated project ( help with nursing paper writing from experts with MSN & DNP degrees)s
\nrequire gender-sensitive design in order to ensure from the project ( help with nursing paper writing from experts with MSN & DNP degrees)’s inception that women will be
\n\u03ef\u03f2
\nThe organization\u2019s technical co\u2013operation gender activities are structures through the
\nITCP under a discrete global programme for the Integration of Women in the Maritime
\nSector (IWMS), supported, since 2001, by the TC Fund. One of the principal objectives
\nof the ITCP is to help improve the human capital of developing countries through
\ntraining, education and other means of knowledge transfer. Strengthening the \u2018human
\nelement\u2019, without gender distinction, is a key consideration in delivering IMO\u2019s mandate
\n(IMO TC 58\/7\/1 paragraph 3, 2008).
\nIWMS represents the primary vehicle for articulating the UN system-wide commitment
\nto gender equality, in support of the UN Millennium Development Goal (MDG) 326 to
\n\u201cpromote gender equality and empower women\u201d. The Secretariat has continued to
\nemphasize this aspect of capacity-building through its global programmes for technical
\nco-operation. The policy linkages relating to this issue are reflected also in the
\nOrganization\u2019s strategic plan, which addresses gender aspects under Strategic Direction
\n3 whereby \u2018IMO will strengthen its capacity-building programmes\u2019. Further linkages
\nare made through the High-level Action Plan, which includes reference to \u2018strengthening
\nthe role of women in the maritime sector\u2019 (IMO, TC 60\/7, 2010; IMO, TC 60\/7\/1, 2010;
\nTC 59\/10, 2008;TC 58\/7\/1, 2008 ).<\/p>\n
specific target groups both as participants and as beneficiaries in the formulation and impact of a
\nprogramme or project ( help with nursing paper writing from experts with MSN & DNP degrees). Source from IMO TC 47\/8 Annex p2.
\n\u03ee\u03f1 Women-specific project ( help with nursing paper writing from experts with MSN & DNP degrees)s represent a phased approach to facilitating the integration of women into the
\nmainstream sectoral development of the maritime industry: they represent an engine for change, through
\nactivities which include, inter alia, dedicated fellowship funding for technical training programmes,
\nwhich, in addition to improving specific maritime skills, are designed to Help women in overcoming
\nattitudinal and environmental constraints and ensure their access to training. Source from IMO TC 47\/8.
\nAnnex p2.
\n26 The policy linkages relating to this issue are reflected also in the Organization\u2019s Strategic Plan, which
\naddresses gender aspects under Strategic Direction 3 \u201cIMO will strengthen its capacity-building
\nprogrammes\u201d. Further linkages are made through the High-Level Action Plan, which makes reference
\nto strengthening the role of women in the maritime sector. Source from (IMO, TC 60\/7, 2010; TC 59\/10,
\n2008)
\n\u03ef\u03f3
\nThe IWMS gender-specific fellowships are intended to support the access to training
\nopportunities for women in the developing regions, in accordance with the concepts
\noutlined under MDG 3, by facilitating the identification and selection of women for
\ncareer development opportunities in maritime administrations, ports and maritime
\ntraining institutes. The training, thus imparted, represents an engine for change which, in
\naddition to improving a region\u2019s maritime capacities, is designed to Help women in
\novercoming attitudinal and environmental constraints and to facilitate their access to
\ncareer development (IMO, TC 60\/7, 2010).
\n4.1.1 Limitation of these Programmes
\nIn accordance with the purpose of establishment of regional linkages, the author focuses
\non this point, as it seems to be not quite to satisfy the scope of the overall course of
\nprogrammes. This means that the range of the course of a programme is limited to
\nparticular courses which focus on maritime transport management, port operations,
\nmaritime law, maritime security and so on. This is indicated in Table 11 which show the
\nfellowships provided under the TC Programme during the 2002-2009 period.
\nNevertheless, in these circumstances of contributing to international efforts, it has not
\nbeen a programme sufficient to develop the capacity-building and encourage the self\u2013
\nconfidence of women seafarers to go to sea! Nowadays, a growing number of women
\ndesire to go to sea, and they decide to work at sea for longer periods. Despite all of the
\ninternational efforts such as the WID in 1998, supported by the ITCP and IWMS in 2001,
\nand later the campaign \u2018Go to Sea\u2019 in 2008 and \u20182010: Year of Seafarers\u2019 in 2010, there
\nare insufficient programmes to encourage the integration of women seafarers into the
\nmaritime sector. The author reviews and examines the existing programmes that are
\nfocused on women who are working as managers in the maritime shore-based industry
\nand port sectors.
\n\u03ef\u03f4
\nTable 11 Fellowship programme by TC
\nYear Course Recipient countries
\nMaritime transport management Ghana
\nAdvanced course on port operations and management Guyana, Russian Federation
\nMaritime and port management programme Myanmar
\nMaritime law short course Poland, Slovenia
\n2002
\nOn the job training at MCA, Southampton South Africa
\nSenior port management programme Philippines
\nAdvanced course on port operations and management Lithuania, Togo
\nMaritime Security workshop \/ symposium Honduras
\n2003
\nStudy tour on flag State implementation Haiti
\nSenior port management programme Romania, Tanzania 2004
\nAdvanced course on port operations and management Congo, Lithuania, Togo
\nSenior port management programme Liberia, Poland
\n2005 Advanced course on port operations and management Benin, Gambia
\nNine month course in international maritime law Ukraine
\nAdvanced course on port operations and management China
\nWomen in Shipping and Trading Association (WISTA)
\nAnnual Conference
\nChina, Kenya, Nigeria
\nSenior port management programme Gambia, Tanzania
\n2006
\nAdvanced course on port operations and management Ukraine
\nAdvanced course on port operations and management Belize, Cameroon,
\nPhilippines, Senegal
\nSenior port management programme Cambodia, Russian Federation,
\nSouth Africa
\nInternational semnar on port security Honduras
\n2007
\nMarine pollution prevention in ports operations On the job
\ntraining
\nCote d\u2019Ivoire
\nAdvanced course on port operations and management Albania, China, C\u00f4te
\nd\u2019Ivoire, Gabon
\nSenior port management programme South Africa, United
\nRepublic of Tanzania
\nSubregional maritime English instructors training course Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania,
\nRussian Federation Ukraine
\n2008
\nCourse on Regional Ocean Governance for Mediterranean
\nand Eastern European countries
\nRussian Federation, Turkey
\n\u03ef\u03f5
\nMaritime administration attachment On-the-job training Namibia
\nAdvanced course on port operations and management Madagascar, Nigeria and
\nTunisia
\nSenior port management programme Namibia, the Philippines
\nRegional Ocean Governance for Mediterranean and Eastern
\nEuropean countries
\nRussian Federation, Ukraine
\n2009
\nTraining course on Port Security Kenya
\nSource: Combined data by Sohyun Jo based on the IMO Technical Co-operation Committee\u2019s document.
\nIn comparison with the earlier mentioned IMO activities, the United Nations General
\nAssembly adopted the establishment of the UN entity for gender equality and the
\nempowerment of women commonly known as \u2018UN Women\u2019 in July 2010 (UN, 2010).
\nThe UN has attempted to address such challenges, by becoming a dynamic and strong
\nchampion for women and girls, as well as providing them with a powerful voice at the
\nglobal, regional and local levels (Ibid). Ultimately, this programme will promote gender
\nequality and the empowerment of women on a global level.
\nIn order to be more active in encouraging further development of the women seafarer
\nwork force as a human resource, IMO should consider policies to establish and provide
\nsufficient programmes that are more proactive towards the present women seafarers, and
\nalso those who want to be recruited into seafarer jobs in the future. Obviously, the
\nprinciple role of the programme would be to conduct surveys of women on board ships
\nand evaluate the women seafarer work force through monitoring and assessment. Also,
\nthis programme should consider practical ways to encourage female employment in the
\nmaritime sector by using specifically designed programmes.
\n\u03f0\u03ec
\nChapter 5 Survey
\n5.1 Background to the Survey Questionnaire
\nAn overview of the study aims and procedures involved in the project ( help with nursing paper writing from experts with MSN & DNP degrees) research is shown
\nin Table 13. In addition, a more detailed questionnaire is shown in Appendix 1.
\nTable 12 Overview of the project ( help with nursing paper writing from experts with MSN & DNP degrees) research
\nStudy Aims \u2022 In order to improve a profile of Korean women seafarers
\n– Examine the main issues surrounding the recruitment
\nand retention of women seafarers,
\n– Discuss the working life of women seafarers,
\n– Support a development strategy for recruitment and
\nretention of women seafarers on merchant vessels.
\nData Collection \u2022 Target group
\n– Former seafarers and present seafarers,
\n\u2022 The data collection was undertakening June and July in
\n2010,
\n\u2022 Of the original 51 participants, 26 were successfully
\ncontacted, with a response rate of 68 percent,
\n\u2022 Method : e-mail and telephone interviews.
\nQuestionnaire contents \u2022 Personal data and background
\n– Age, occupation, type of ship, reason for seafaring,
\nexperience of seafarer, rank on ship,
\n\u2022 Experience at sea
\n– Problem with colleagues, difficulty to retain why, how
\ndeal with these problems, the areas to be improved,
\nshipping company responsibility, recommend other
\nwoman,
\n\u2022 Miscellaneous comments.
\nOverall response
\nanalysis method
\n\u2022 Conduct survey of key opinion leaders,
\n\u2022 Conduct on frequency analysis on questionnaires of
\nrepresentative sample through SPSS,
\n\u2022 Consider giving priority to aspects of the problem,
\n\u2022 Recommend measures to support women seafarers\u2019 needs.
\n\u03f0\u03ed
\n5.2 Response details
\n5.2.1 Average age of respondents
\nTable 13 does not represent the current overall women seafarers\u2019 age profile. As Table
\n13, shows the rate of distribution of the respondent group\u2019s age of those who have had
\nexperience at sea as officers and\/or current seafarers. The majority of respondents are of
\nan average age between 30 and 35 years, or 57.8 percent. The mean age of these
\nrespondents is 30 according to this analysis.
\nTable 13 The age profile of respondents
\nAge
\ncategorize
\nFrequency
\npercentage
\nValid
\npercent
\n22 3.8 3.8
\n24 19.3 19.3
\n25 11.5 11.5
\n26 3.8 3.8
\n27 3.8 3.8
\n30 3.8 3.8
\n31 7.8 7.8
\n32 3.8 3.8
\n33 7.8 7.8
\n34 11.5 11.5
\n35 23.1 23.1
\nMissing values : 0, Mean : 29.69, Median : 31.0, Standard deviation :4.78, Variance : 22.542
\nTotal 100.0 100.0
\nSource : Survey by Jo S.H. 2010
\n\u03f0\u03ee
\n5.2.2 Current occupation of respondents
\nTable 14 The current occupation of respondents
\nOccupation
\ncategorize
\nFrequency
\npercentage
\nValid
\npercent
\nPSCO 3.8 3.8
\nVTS operator 0.0 0.0
\nSeafarer 7.8 7.8
\nKorea Coast Guard 3.8 3.8
\nGovernment Officer 3.8 3.8
\nShip Building Yard 3.8 3.8
\nShipping company
\nmanager level
\n0.0 0.0
\nShipping company
\njunior level
\n7.8 7.8
\nInspector or
\nSurveyor
\n15.4 15.4
\nUniversity Master or
\nDoctor degree
\nstudent
\n3.8 3.8
\nTeacher or instructor 3.8 3.8
\nLooking for
\nemployment
\n7.7 7.7
\nHomemaker 11.5 11.5
\nOther 26.9 26.9
\nMissing values : 0, Mean : 9.85, Median : 10.5, Standard deviation :4.076, Variance : 16.615
\nTotal 100.0 100.0
\nSource : Survey by Jo S.H. 2010
\nAmong these seafarers, many inspectors and surveyors responded to the questionnaire
\nequaling 15.4 percent of the respondents. Unfortunately, the rate of respondents of
\ncurrent women seafarers was only 7.8 percent. To interpret the low response of current
\nwomen seafarers, it could be attributed to a hesitation by shipping companies to provide
\ncontact lists to the author when the research topic (sample nursing essay examples by the best nursing assignment writing service) of women seafarers in Korea was
\n\u03f0\u03ef
\nidentified. The author concludes that the shipping companies were concerned about what
\ntheir employees might say that would negatively implicate the companies.
\n5.2.3 Experiment of cargo ships
\n5.2.3.1 Type of ship
\nThe majority of women in this research have experience on bulk carriers and container
\nwork. According to the author\u2019s results in Figure 15, it is noticeable that women
\nemployed on gas carriers represented over 15 percent the same as car carriers, of those
\nemployed. However, it is noted that the respondents from gas carriers were cadets, not
\nofficers. Actually, there is no record as yet of any history of as Officers or Engineers on
\noil tanker ships and gas carriers. Not surprisingly, both oil tanker and gas carrier
\nshipping companies are apparently willing to employ women as officers and engineers;
\nhowever, it seems to be ironic that there is no recorded evidence of their hiring of
\nwomen.
\nOne comment in the questionnaires, from one ex-seafarer Korean women it was
\nrecounted,
\n\u201cInitially, I applied to one of the big major tanker shipping companies for
\nemployment as a 3rd officer. I was to challenge there never have been women
\nonboard tanker ships historically. [\u2026] however, I did not choose to embark on that
\nship. I did not understand that all of them were male, even with a lower grade
\npoint average (GPA) than me. Of course, I could was not compared in terms of
\nGPA, however look at all the tanker shipping companies, there are all male, no
\nwomen at all.\u201d
\nThe author questioned these comments with a human resource manager in a tanker
\nshipping company, and he stated,
\n\u03f0\u03f0
\n\u201cThere is no particular reason, we do not think there is a taboo against women.
\nWhen we hire employees, we should consider who would make an adequate
\nemployee in our company the same as for other shipping companies, it should
\nfollow quality and the internal system, not be influenced by any particular issues.\u201d
\nHowever, the author notes that the above company has no prior history of employing
\nwomen as officers.
\nOther tanker shipping company managers stated regarding the employment of women
\nofficers in an interview that:
\n\u201cWe feel sorry about the lack of proactive employment of women, but it is true
\nthat the tanker shipping world has a conservative view of women. In fact, the ship
\narea of the tanker industry retains conventional views. This point of view may be
\nbecause they have to handle a dangerous cargo at all times, the responsible crew
\nmembers could be more sensitive with a woman. That women onboard is a taboo
\nin the shipping world as it might cause a serious disasters or accidents.\u201d
\nHowever, the author concludes that these circumstances are not considered to be
\ndiscouraging given that the history of women onboard is approximately 17 years. The
\nauthor further concludes that there is sufficient room for improvement by women which
\nis the primary purpose behind this study. .
\nLet us explore more regarding the type of ship of women onboard ships. The general
\nworking environment on board ship has not been improved relative to the shore based
\nworking environment. In order to close the gap, many shipping companies have been
\nconsidering a friendlier and a safer safety atmosphere. For example, the S shipping
\ncompany tries to place women exclusively on new ships on long haul and on older ships
\non short-sea voyages. Other shipping companies have placed women officers onboard
\n\u03f0\u03f1
\ncontainer ships mostly because they appreciate their meticulousness and detailed
\nperformance as well as it being a more acceptable living environment on ships. The
\nshipping companies examined that many women officers on container ships have carried
\nout their performance satisfactorily and with remarkable ability more so than their male
\ncolleagues (Kim, 2008a).
\nTable 15 Type of ship with women onboard
\nType of ship Frequency
\npercentage
\nValid
\npercent
\nBulk carrier 23.1 23.1
\nCars carrier 7.7 7.7
\nContainer 23.1 23.1
\nGas carrier 11.5 11.5
\nLNG carrier 0.0 0.0
\nOil Tanker 15.4 15.4
\nTraining ship 15.4 15.4
\nOthers 3.8 3.8
\nMissing values : 0, Mean : 3.62, Median : 3.0, Standard deviation : 2.401, Variance : 5,766
\nTotal 100.0 100.0
\nSource : Survey by Jo S.H. 2010
\n5.2.3.2 Rank and careers of women onboard ship
\nIt is surprising to note why women seafarers have had a short period of experience
\nonboard ship when many female graduates went to sea as officers and then, decided to
\ntransfer to shore-based jobs or look for alternative employment. To explain this
\nphenomenon the following Table 16, indicates among respondents, 50.6 percent have
\nexperience onboard of less than 1 year. The majority already had experience as apparent
\n\u03f0\u03f2
\nofficers and apparent engineers on ships. However, they then later decided to apply for
\nshore-based jobs or other non-seafaring employment.
\nTable 16 Rank (Left) and career (Right) onboard ship
\nSource : Survey by Jo S.H. 2010
\nOn the other hand, it seems that most available career data shows from 1 year to 3 years
\nonboard ships. These career periods are much shorter than young males who have to
\nfulfill an obligatory three year on-board work assignment. It is worth noting that the
\naverage period onboard ship for women is crucial from a shipping company point of
\nview, because it can be doubted what merits of employment women are on boarding. In
\ncommon economic sense, it seems that having women on boarding is not an effective
\nand economic means in the long term from a shipping company practical standpoint.
\nHowever, the author provides a further explanation in Chapter 6.
\n\u03f0\u03f3
\n5.2.4 Main motivation of selecting to be a seafarer
\nWomen are attracted to work at sea for various reasons. Table 17 demonstrates these
\nreasons for choosing a seafaring career. The highest response shows a desire to work in
\na different seagoing environment, with 53.8 percent of respondents indicating this reason.
\nThe 2nd highest response at 34.6 percent indicates a motivation for a special job
\nexperience and then to transfer it to a shore-based job in the future.
\nTable 17 Main motivation to select a seafaring job
\nReason Frequency
\npercentage
\nValid
\npercent
\nOpportunity of
\ntravel
\n0.0 0.0
\nEconomic reason 11.5 11.5
\nTransfer to ashore
\nfor future
\n34.6 34.6
\nDesire and
\nchallenge
\n53.8 53.8
\nDifficult
\nemployment ashore
\n0.0 0.0
\nOther 0.0 0.0
\nMissing values : 0, Mean : 3.42, Median : 4.0, Standard deviation : 0.703, Variance : 0.494
\nTotal 100.0 100.0
\nSource : Survey by Jo S.H. 2010
\nIn comparison, in the cruise sector, women from developing countries respond to the
\npotential earning opportunity compared to lesser economic opportunities from shorebased jobs (Belcher et al., 2003, Zhao, 2001). This further explains why most Asian
\nwomen primarily focus on the financial advantages of seafaring. On the contrary,
\nwomen from developed countries cite the opportunity to travel and \u201csee the world for
\n\u03f0\u03f4
\nfree\u201d as the most significant motivating factor to join the cruise sector; (Belcher et al.,
\n2003) and they were seemingly less motivated by economic reasons such that most
\ndeveloped countries women seafarers noted that \u2018money is not my major concern.\u2019(Zhao,
\n2001).
\nIn evaluating the above findings of this research, the most significant motivating factor
\nis not to get the opportunity to see other countries such as indicated by women from
\ndeveloped countries, but rather the financial advantage motivation. The following
\nresponse from an ex-seafarer was Korean women.
\n\u201cI think that the seafarer officer as a job has to be made more attractive than it is
\nnow. Currently, the ships\u2019 officer is not an enviable job with good earnings,
\ncompensation or with opportunities to travel overseas any more. There are many
\nother jobs which pay much better earnings than shore-based jobs, and seafarers are
\nnot allowed to freely travel to foreign countries as before because of the short
\nberthing times.\u201d
\nOnce again the respondents recount a major motivating reason for choosing seafaring in
\nKorea that is to examine one\u2019s self, satisfies own desire for a different environment and
\nthe so-called, \u2018challenge\u2019 and \u2018spirit of adventure their own way\u2019. Initially, it seems that
\nKorean women desire to be more adventurous and thus go seafaring around the world.
\n5.2.5 Experience at sea
\n5.2.5.1 Experience of facing problems with colleagues
\nNearly 32 percent of all respondents had have experience of sexual discrimination with
\ncolleagues at sea, as highlighted in Figure 10. Only 13 percent of respondents have in
\nfact not experienced any problems with colleagues. However, the combined similar
\nquestion with \u2018Sexual discrimination\u2019, \u2018Sexual harassment\u2019 and \u2018Non sexual harassment\u2019
\n\u03f0\u03f5
\nis a higher rate at 50 percent than 16 percent of \u2018Intentional ignorance\u2019, 13 percent of
\n\u2018None\u2019 and zero percent of \u2018Bullying\u2019. It is significant that half of the respondents have
\nexperienced problems which are inherently sexual or non-sexual harassment and
\ndiscrimination.
\nSource : Survey by Jo S.H. 2010
\nFigure 10 Experience problem with colleagues
\nIndeed, for women who faced these problems with colleagues, this research found how
\nthey dealt with the problem as indicated in Table 18. It is worth noting how they had
\novercome or coped with this situation. The majority (nearly 35 percent) of respondents
\nreported that they used to keep it to themselves when they experienced a problem with
\nmale colleagues. Also, in order to analyze how women deal with problems with
\ncolleagues, this research conducted a Cross Tabs analysis27 through SPSS between the
\nquestion of how to deal with problems and the question what problems as shown in
\nTable 19.<\/p>\n
\u03ee\u03f3 Cross Tabs Analysis is used to record and analyze the relationships between responses on two questions
\nor more categorical variables.
\n\u03f1\u03ec
\nTable 18 The method of control difficulty
\nHow deal with problem Frequency
\npercentage
\nValid percent
\nKeep it to oneself 34.9 34.9
\nShare it with family and\/or friends 7.7 7.7
\nShare it with colleagues and get support from them 30.8 30.8
\nReport it to your senior (ie, Captain, chief officer, chief engineer,
\netc)
\n23.1 23.1
\nReport it to company\u2019s manager 0.0 0.0
\nReport it to Seafarers Union 0.0 0.0
\nOther 3.8 3.8
\nMissing values : 0, Mean : 2.62, Median : 3.0, Standard deviation :1.499, Variance : 2.246
\nTotal 100.0 100.0
\nSource : Survey by Jo S.H. 2010
\nTable 19 Result of Cross Tabs analysis
\nKeep it Share * Share
\n**
\nReport
\n1
\nReport
\n2
\nReport
\n3 Other
\nNone 0 0 3 1 0 0 1
\nIntentional ignorance 2 2 3 1 0 0
\nBullying 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
\nSexual discrimination 5 0 3 2 0 0 0
\nNon sexual harassment :
\nverbal or physical
\n1 0 0 0 0 0 0
\nAbuse of power 1 0 2 1 0 0 0
\nSexual harassment 0 0 0 1 0 0 1
\nother 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
\nSource : Survey by Jo S.H. 2010
\nNote *: Share it with family and\/or friends, Note **: Share it with colleagues and get support from them
\nNote 1 Report it to your senior, Note 2: Report it to company\u2019s manager immediately, Note 3: Report it to
\nSeafarers Union.
\n\u03f1\u03ed
\nFor instance, among 32 percent of the women who had experienced sexual
\ndiscrimination with colleagues, 50 percent of the women seem passive to report or share
\nit as they indicated that they preferred to keep it themselves. Moreover, 30 percent of the
\nwomen tried to share it with colleagues and attain support from them through personal
\nchatting. Another 20 percent of women seem to have a more active tendency to report it
\nto senior officers on the ship. Eventually, based on the above data, the results
\ndemonstrated that women behave by keeping problems to themselves or share emotional
\ndistress with someone close to them, rather than reporting the incident to senior officers
\nor the company. It seems that women have a passive attitude to taking up issues rather
\nthan active attitude such as to report it to the company or seafarers unions.
\n5.2.5.2 The difficulty to retain women at sea
\nNearly 27 percent of all women respondents recognize the biggest difficulty onboard is
\nthe loneliness and isolation from family and closer friends as indicated in Table 20. This
\nis absolutely the worst aspect for all seafarers working at sea today, loneliness and living
\naway from family and society, and the difficulties of keeping in touch (Bansal, 2009).
\nThe negative impact of isolation from society is a common issue for all seafarers, not
\nonly for women (Kitada, 2009a).
\nTable 20 The difficult elements of seafaring at sea
\nRank The difficult elements of seafaring at sea Frequency
\npercentage
\n1 Isolation or loneliness 26.9
\n2 Sexual discrimination from male colleagues 23.1
\n3 Traditional social responsibility for women ; marriage, nurturing children 15.4
\n4 Specialty of job and physical difficulties related to job 15.4
\n5 Gender inequality; unequal promotion opportunities 8.0
\n6 other 11.2
\nSource : Survey by Jo S.H. 2010
\n\u03f1\u03ee
\nSecondly, as the response from 23.1 percent of women who faced sexual discrimination
\nfrom male colleagues and thirdly, 15.4 percent of women who responded they had a
\ndifficulty with the traditional social role for women such as marriage, and nurturing
\nchildren.
\nAs the same 15.4 percent, some women find the work difficult onboard whereas, the
\nroutine ships\u2019 work seems to be an unsuitable environment for women for instance,
\nirregular ship arrival and departure, being over-worked, the physical hard work, and the
\nhot environment in the engine room. The difficult elements of seafaring are crucial
\nfactors to decide what women seafarers need to do to be better seafarers as discussed the
\nproblems in Chapter 6. According to this data, this research analyses in depth and finds
\nthe solutions they need.
\n5.2.5.3 Opinion of how to improve and develop working environment
\nWomen seafarers are a minority of entity of seafarers on cargo ships. Women seafarers
\nalso transfer shore-based employment more quickly than male seafarers. The focus of
\nthis thesis is to understand why women transfer to shore, what difficulties women face in
\nbeing recruited and retaining a seafaring job. In order for this situation to improve, this
\nresearch investigates what areas are needed to create a better environment for women.
\nThe results of the question are shown in Table 21.
\nTable 21 Strategy to improve and develop the working environment
\nRank Top priority of area to improve Frequency
\npercentage
\n1 Shipping company\u2019s policy and social responsibility (CSR) 53.8
\n2 The effort of improvements by self-motivated 30.8
\n3 Korea has a social role and responsibility for females 15.4
\nSource : Survey by Jo S.H. 2010
\n\u03f1\u03ef
\nTable 21 shows a majority of 53.8 percent of the respondents report that there is a need
\nto improve the shipping company\u2019s policies and insure greater social responsibility
\ntowards women seafarers. Therefore, the results show that there needs to be a change in
\nthe shipping companies\u2019 policy and put more social responsibility on women. Chapter 6
\nand 7 of the present paper explore what shipping companies should provide for women
\nseafarers as a suitable working environment along with the improvement of their policy
\ntowards.
\nAs aforementioned in paragraph 5.2.5.3, the research found women consider shipping
\ncompanies should improve their environment to be more suitable for women. Therefore,
\nthe author\u2019s research examines what changes are needed to provide sufficient support in
\nterms of shipping companies; these are examined in order of priority.
\n31 percent of the respondents reported that the top priority is to improve to the shipping
\ncompanies role of encouraging policies for women\u2019s work at sea. The survey showed
\nthat nearly 27 percent of the respondents replied that the granting of medical leave for
\nthe menstrual period included the granting through a company\u2019s quality system in an
\nofficial way as well as establishing a company culture which can make a smooth
\nprogress for this approval whenever needed. With regard to these issues, one Korean exseafarer woman commented on the need to provide support for the upbringing of
\nchildren. For example, when a women officer embarks after childbirth, the company
\nshould conduct the support the upbringing of the baby (allowance for diapers, formulas,
\netc.) and allow for the embarkation of a nursery governess. In other words, companies
\nwill have to offer proper childcare policies for women to work comfortably after
\nchildbirth.
\nThe third highest response, as 15.4 percent of the respondents is the consideration of a
\nfemale group onboard to support each other. Therefore, the author of this research would
\n\u03f1\u03f0
\ndevelop a strategy for dealing with improves in the terms of shipping companies as
\ndiscussed in Chapter 7.
\nTable 22 Priority elements for improvement of shipping company
\nRank Top priority elements for improvement Frequency
\npercentage
\n1 Encourage policies to work at sea 30.8
\n2 Granting of medical leave for menstrual period28 26.9
\n3 Consideration of a female group onboard to support one another 15.4
\nRank 2nd priority elements for improvement Frequency
\npercentage
\n1 Pregnancy policy, grantee of maternity leave and reinstatement29 34.6
\n2 Encourage policies to work at sea 19.2
\n3 Granting of medical leave for menstrual period 15.4
\nRank 3rd priority element to improvement Frequency
\npercentage
\n1 Consideration of a female group onboard to support one another 19.2
\nFree contact with family and friends through mailing, phone calling, fax etc 11.5
\nEncourage policies to work at sea 11.5
\nGranting of medical leave for menstrual period 11.5
\nEncourage policies to work at sea 11.5
\n2
\nTraining and education for seafarers 11.5
\nSource : Survey by Jo S.H. 2010
\n5.2.6 Opinion of the seafaring to be recommended to other women
\nAs mentioned in paragraph 5.2.4, the major motivating rationale for choosing seafaring,
\nindicating a 53.8 percent response is \u2018being a seafarer is to examine oneself\u2019, satisfy
\none\u2019s desire for a different environment and a so-called, \u2018challenge\u2019. This is so a positive
\nattitude towards the sea and seafarers. However, this study asks whether more women<\/p>\n
28 Included grantee through quality system or document in official way for medical leave for menstrual
\nperiod as well as establish company culture which can make a smooth progress. \u03ee\u03f5 Included grantee through quality system or document in official way for grantee of maternity leave,
\nreinstatement medical leave as well as establish company culture which can make a smooth progress.
\n\u03f1\u03f1
\nshould be encouraged to become seafarers on cargo ships. The findings of the study is a
\nlittle different gap between 38 percent of respondents who said \u2018yes\u2019 and 23 percent of
\nrespondents who said \u2018No\u2019 as seen in Figure 11. If one combined the answers of \u2018No\u2019
\nand \u2018Not sure\u2019 as negative aspects toward seafaring, then a high rate of 61percent is
\ndominant rather than the answer of \u2018Yes\u2019. According to the following Figure 11, why
\nwere they affected and changed from positive aspects to either negative or vague aspects
\ntoward a seagoing life?
\nSource : Survey by Jo S.H. 2010
\nFigure 11 Opinion profile
\n\u03f1\u03f2
\nChapter 6 What problems do women seafarers face?
\nSuch evidence is telling, and as a result, we need to acknowledge what are the
\ndifficulties that female seafarers expect to face when working onboard a cargo ship.
\nTherefore, based on the findings of the questionnaires, this chapter explores what
\nbarriers exist and what we need to take into proper account in order to encourage more
\nwomen seafarers to work onboard for longer periods. The linkage between problems and
\nsolutions, an important key factor that explains women seafarers\u2019 feelings and
\nexperiences on cargo ship in Korea, now needs to be further considered.
\n6.1 Isolation or loneliness
\nAbsolutely, the separation from family can be a major concern and the source of how
\nmuch unhappiness for males as well as for females. In essence, isolation is common for
\nall seafarers, but for a woman the isolation can be more difficult than for a male,
\nespecially if you are the sole woman among a male crew during 6 months of more or
\nless continuously boarding (Kitada, 2009a).
\nIn this approach, the majority of women seafarers experience difficulties with the lack of
\nother women onboard to talk and share their feelings. Some women are uncomfortable
\ntrying to join a male crew community but also they sometimes feel the need to
\ncommunicate with someone of the same gender. Often there are feelings of loneliness
\nwhen there is no one to talk to according to one interview by the journal of Monthly
\nMaritime Korea (Kim, 2008a). As one of ex-seafarer Korean woman put it,
\n\u03f1\u03f3
\n\u201cSometimes I feel lonely having no one to talk to about anything. I think actually
\nthere is only one woman with me to talk to about any kind of subjects, I feel more
\ncomfortable without loneliness and isolation from the male community. My
\nloneliness was hard to bear.\u2019
\nIt is natural that people are supposed to show of emotions, a tremendous sense of
\ncomradeship between colleagues of the same sex, instead of keeping it to themselves or
\nhiding it as the findings in this research suggest.
\nInterestingly, the ILO (2007) addresses how to reduce the sense of isolation felt by many
\nseafarers, as expressed in the following,
\n\u201cA great advantage is that is creates a more normal social environment. This is
\nparticularly important because the nature of seafaring life has changed in recent
\nyears. There is less time to go ashore and there are people always onboard. Having
\nwomen as part of the crew can reduce the sense of isolation felt by many
\nseafarers.\u201d
\nFor both women and men seafarers, it can be an appreciative way to be harmonized
\namong fewer seafarers onboard regardless of gender according to recent shipping
\nindustry trends such as the so-called \u2018normal social environment\u2019. This research paper
\nwould not refute that approach, however, as cited; most women seafarers are aware of
\nthe need of a same gender group onboard to talk to or even just to chat with. Of course,
\nthis need is not a relevant issue with males who have a sufficient same-gender crew
\nonboard.
\nFor this reason, occasionally some shipping companies have managed to put women
\nonboard for significant periods of time being together on the same ship such as 2nd
\nfemale officer and 3rd female officer. From a shipping company point of view, it seems
\n\u03f1\u03f4
\nnot to pool women together on the same ship at all times. However, a few cases are
\nfounded in the major companies in Korea.
\nHowever, this paper addresses other aspects of isolation or loneliness, so to speak, which
\nmight drive other situations such as stated by one European ship owner,
\n\u201c[\u2026] maybe when they go on a ship they will find somebody, make love and
\nmaybe marry and that\u2019s it. Their seagoing career will stop right there. So the circle
\ncontinues.\u201d (Thomas, 2004)
\nAnother similar example, according to the statement above by a European ship owner,
\ncan assume that it might origin from the isolation or loneliness. Therefore, the author
\nwould state repeatedly that one of the reasons why women look for a friendship can be
\nreflected somehow from the sensation of isolation experienced on board.
\n\u201cWomen cause problems by looking for love in the workplace, and this will
\ndisrupt the workplace and ultimately lead to greater problems.\u201d (Harris, et al.,
\n2004).
\nThus, so far no studies have approached this topic (sample nursing essay examples by the best nursing assignment writing service) and many studies regarding women
\nseafarers do not mention the problem of romance onboard ship. However it seems that
\none of results of the negative impact of isolation or loneliness is to drive another
\nsituation such as romance onboard ship according to many seafarers\u2019 experience.
\n6.2 Sexual discrimination and sexual harassment
\nMany national cultures discriminate against females in the working environment (Harris,
\net al., 2004). Also the shipping industry has been traditionally regarded as a male
\n\u03f1\u03f5
\npreserve and it seems that there is prejudice towards women seafarers (ILO, 2007;
\nThomas, 2004; Belcher et al., 2003).
\nOccasionally, the question is why do women continue to demonstrate intent to work at
\nsea when it is so difficult to work with men onboard ship? Women seafarers, indeed
\nhave proven they can survive onboard the ship or in the male community, how long they
\ncan bear the workplace isolation? Can they work under a difficult environment similar to
\nmen? The difference between males and females is from a biological and physical
\nperspective (O\u2019Reilly, and O\u2019Nelly, 2003), no less. These particular questions stem from
\noccupational stereotyping and discrimination.
\n6.2.1 Sexual discrimination
\nThomas (2004) in \u2018Get yourself a proper job girlie\u2019 states,
\n\u201cThere are two different types of guys. One type is expecting more because they
\nsay \u2018women can\u2019t work onboard\u2019. And if you make one mistake they say, \u2018Okay I
\nknew it, I knew it. Now you see, she is not able\u2019. And there is the other type, if you
\ntake something absolutely normal, like a hammer and you put a nail in something,
\nthey say, \u2018Oh my god, great! You can do it. I knew it. Fantastic!\u2019 And this is also
\nabsolutely typical after a while, because the smallest things you\u2019re doing, they are
\nso, \u2018Oh my god. Yes!\u2019
\nMany man used to be doubtful of women seafarers ability, for example, men try to find
\nout what female colleagues have done completely well or not. From the shipping
\ncompany perspective, negative attitudes to the employment of women also relate to
\nperception of the feminine gender. As one ex-seafarer women in Korea stated,
\n\u201cI received a training course at H Merchant Marine, and applied for a scholarship
\nbut was rejected. During the interviews, I received many questions about my
\n\u03f2\u03ec
\nfeminine look. They wanted to know whether I could bear the workload if I took
\nthe job. It seems that they want a big strong man-like woman (for reference, an
\nengineer and a navigator were selected among the female students. The original
\npositions to be filled were for two engineers and five navigators. The remaining
\npositions were filled by male students, although they were inferior candidates the
\nfemales in terms of GPA and study ratings). I think female officers may work
\nbetter than males, but most male officers believe that there are certain limits to
\nfemale capabilities to work at sea. They think that it is dangerous to work with a
\nfemale officer because women are prone to cause accidents.\u201d
\nWith similar opinions to those expressed above, another ex-seafarer women in Korea
\nrecounted sexual discrimination when shipping companies recruit as referenced below,
\n\u201cActually, most female students have been working harder and superior to male
\nstudents in terms of GPA. Most companies say that they do not discriminate
\nagainst female applicants, but most of them recruit only one female applicant. I
\nheard that a major shipping company employs a female applicant for formality\u2019s
\nsake or for the company\u2019s public image because it is forced to do so. [\u2026] Since I
\nexperienced discrimination after graduation and I experienced personally how
\ndifficult it is to join a male-oriented organization.\u201d
\nThus, this conservatism and prejudice attitude have denied to women applicants work
\nopportunities in the shipping industry, even if the woman\u2019s student credentials are
\nhigher30 than those of the male students. Employers who held negative views of women
\nseafarers frequently had in common the fact that they had little or no experience
\nemploying women seafarers as marine crews.<\/p>\n
\u03ef\u03ec Most female students of the average credit of entrance and graduation of the MMU and the KMU is
\nindicated higher than male student group by per year, source from KMU and MMU.
\n\u03f2\u03ed
\nOn the contrary, excessive concern for female officers may have made it more difficult
\non-board ship. As one ex-seafarer women in Korea stated,
\n\u201cWhen I was on a container ship for training, the Captain tried to install another
\nlock to my room door which cannot be opened from the outside once locked. Of
\ncourse, such a device was against the safety regulations. Such overprotection made
\nme very uneasy. I could not go to a lower deck because I was a woman, and I
\ncould not do something, because I was a woman.\u201d
\n\u201cI now know that I must lock my door before I go to sleep and I check it at least
\nthree times. And it\u2019s awful to think that you have to lock yourself away, but it\u2019s a
\nfact of life.\u201d (Belcher et al., 2003).
\nOn the basis of the author\u2019s experience, when I was a 3rd officer on a bulk carrier ship,
\nthe Captain attached another inner locking system to my room door to disable the door
\nfrom being opened from the outside by any key or master key. In addition, the Captain
\nalways ensured the author return to cabin during the night handover to the 2nd officer
\nbeing sure no problems were arising. For the reason, all of the crew called me the
\n\u2018Cinderella 3rd officer!!!\u2019 because I had to be back in my cabin before 12 pm more or
\nless, when I had finished my duty especially night duty.
\nSexual discrimination continues to exist in today\u2019s maritime industry. One of the biggest
\nimpacts of sexual discrimination is found in that there are comparatively less
\nopportunities for employment by women as seafarers. Moreover, from a practical point
\nof view, the efforts of shipping companies to prevent sexual harassment seems to be
\ninsufficient to result in a company policy change reflecting a real corporate culture
\nadjustment that may be on the way. Even though women are employed, the existence of
\nsexual discrimination on ships needs to be addressed. These problems and difficulties
\nrelative to common life on ships still exist due to a perception gap of sexuality.
\n\u03f2\u03ee
\nOne of the negative impacts of sexual discrimination to address is the overprotection of
\nwomen. It comes from the perception that women are weaker than men, and that they are
\nmore prone to accidents or errors than men. It might cause other problems whereby
\nwomen often get more favorable treatment than men. It may be evident that an
\noverprotection attitude can be more harmful than helpful for women.
\nWe should appreciate the significance of these differences between men and women. Of
\ncourse, there is a need to recognize the difference of sexuality, however, these
\ndifferences are biological and physical and not those of qualifications or ability.
\n6.2.2 Sexual harassment including non sexual harassment
\nAs a result of the author\u2019s survey and in-depth interviews, it is concluded that many
\nwomen also reported problems with some male colleagues in terms of sexual harassment.
\nSexual harassment is defined as intimidation, bullying or coercion of a sexual nature, or
\nthe unwelcome or inappropriate promise of rewards in exchange for sexual favors31.
\nSexual harassment is a severe and complicated issue facing women since they began to
\nbe seafarers on cargo ships as well as on other types of ships. This author\u2019s research
\nfound that the majority of women responded that they face this kind of harassment
\n(either sexual or non sexual) onboard and have commonly heard of rumors and gossip
\ninvolving sexual harassment between female and male seafarers.
\nOne interview with a human resource manager of a shipping company in Korea outlined
\na recent case of harassment that recently occurred when a 3rd officer came into her cabin
\nafter a party with all the crew members; she could not stop screaming when she found a
\nnaked Pilipino sailor sitting on the edge of her bed in her cabin.<\/p>\n
31 Source from Wikipedia
\n\u03f2\u03ef
\nOver the past few years, in Korea, a trainee deck officer sleeping in her cabin was
\ncompletely taken aback by a drunken Chief officer who kept a master key. In addition
\nanother case, while escorting the pilot towards the navigation bridge from the pilot
\nembarkation area when a ship passed the channel, the pilot approached the 3rd officer
\nand tried to touch her by cornering her in the elevator. It seems that the 3rd officer got
\nstuck in the elevator at that moment.
\nOther reported experiences of harassment cases by Belcher et al.(2003)is,
\n\u201cWhen I got up to go to the bridge to work, he was lying down on his side, I could
\nsee him from my door, he was totally naked and was masturbating. [\u2026] So it
\nreally freaked me out when he turned his head and smiled at me. So I kind of got
\nscared. I started arriving late for my duty watches and I asked my senior officer to
\ncome down to escort me up.\u201d
\nThomas\u2019s study (2004), deals with the reality of sexual harassment including sexual
\ncomments in the guise of humor, persistent sexual invitations and unwanted physical
\ncontact; as well as unwanted sexual attention as earlier illustrated. It reported how
\nwomen are take a number of steps to avoid such indications by locking their cabins at
\nnight or attempting to de-feminize their appearance. Such as remarked in the definition
\nby Kitada (2009a), the author analyzes women seafarers\u2019 identity introducing four
\ndifferent categories; negotiators, constructors, maintainers and reproducers. They might
\neven be other identities when women are onboard ship.
\nIn the past decade, there has not been any significant number of studies investigating
\nharassment on ships. It seems that the shipping companies are not likely to be open to
\nnegative news in the public either: the female victims tend to hide those incidents to
\navoid public exposure in a conservative society. So far in Korea, it has been
\nimpracticable to visualize those issues to the public.
\n\u03f2\u03f0
\nAlso in addition, another female ex-seafarer in Korea stated that when she was
\ninterviewed, she remained in the \u2018keep silent mode\u2019,
\n\u201cI have never been taught how to handle maltreatment or sexual harassment of
\nstudents by taking advantage of performance ratings. I believe that there have been
\nmany similar cases which have been covered because such issues may cause
\ntrouble for all female officers.\u201d
\nThe effect of sexual harassment of any form on women onboard ship can be
\nconsiderable and can have a direct influence on their career whereas the ships\u2019
\noccupational hierarchies concentrates well on their personal well-being (Belcher et al.
\n2003). Indeed, in order to fully understand the impact of sexual harassment issues of any
\nform on women onboard ship, it is necessary to talk openly, to be open, and to be brave,
\nnot just to employers, but also to women seafarers themselves. One objective of this
\nresearch is to profile sexual harassment on ships so that it can be dealt more effectively.
\nWith more active support to prevent sexual harassment, under Article 13 of the \u2018Act on
\nequal employment and support for work-family reconciliation\u2019 and \u2018Framework Act on
\nWomen\u2019s Development\u201932 in Korean Law, employers should play a primary role in
\npromoting education to \u2018Prevent Sexual Harassment in the Workplace\u201933 at least once a<\/p>\n
32 Framework Act on Women\u2019s Development adopted 1995, December 30, last amendment on Act
\nnumber 8852, 2008, February 29 The purpose of this Act is to promote the equality between men and
\nwomen in all the areas of politics, economy, society and culture and to facilitate the women\u2019s
\ndevelopment by stipulating the fundamental matters with regard to the obligation, etc. of the State and
\nlocal governments for realizing an idea of equality between men and women under the Constitution of
\nthe Republic of Korea. Source form Article 1(purpose) under the \u2018Framework Act on Women\u2019s
\nDevelopment\u2019. 33 Article 13 (Education to Prevent Sexual Harassment in the Workplace) under the \u2018Act on equal
\nemployment and support for work-family reconciliation\u2019;
\n(1) An employer shall conduct education in order to prevent Sexual Harassment in the workplace
\n(hereinafter referred to as the \u201ceducation to prevent sexual harassment\u201d) and to create a safe working
\nenvironment for workers (Amended 2007 December, 21).
\n\u03f2\u03f1
\nyear,34 in order to prevent sexual harassment in the work place and to create a safe
\nworking environment. Obviously, the majority of shipping companies conduct
\neducational programs against sexual harassment for employees both on shore and ships
\nat least once a year. Some shipping companies conduct education for newly recruited
\nseafarers in advance of boarding the ship. In general, such training includes illustrations
\nof the unacceptable, unwanted behavior, sexist remarks, sex-related behavior and details
\nof the company\u2019s disciplinary procedures. It seems that employees tend to be very
\npositive about the existence and great importance of such policies.
\nHowever, despite the efforts and the existence of such educational training of the
\nshipping company policies, sexual harassment or related sexual issues continue to be
\nreported. The reason is the lack of sufficient educational programs to prevent related
\nsexual issues, not for education for education\u2019s sake.
\nOne of Korean women ex-seafarers interviewee proposed gave her experienced opinion
\non educational programme in order to prevent sexual harassment and problems relevant
\nsexuality as well as to create a health working environment for both women and man
\nseafarers.
\n\u201cI believe that there shall be extra educational programs for crew members with
\nthe aim to prevent prejudice against female officers and [\u2026].\u201d
\nTo be more positive, active and efficient in such education, there is a need to have a
\nmore practical approach to education, emphasizing how to live with different genders
\nonboard ships.<\/p>\n
34 Article 3 (Education to Prevent Sexual Harassment at Work) under the \u2018Act on equal employment and
\nsupport for work-family reconciliation\u2019;
\n(1) Employers shall, pursuant to Article 13 of the Act, conduct education on preventing sexual
\nharassment at work at least once a year. (Amended by Presidential Decree No. 19366, Feb. 28, 2006)
\n\u03f2\u03f2
\n6.3 The traditional social responsibilities for women
\nTo avoid the cultural stereotypes inherent in conceptions of masculinity and femininity,
\nwe operationalize gender identity as gendered preferences for organizational culture in
\naccordance with the study by O\u2019Reilly and O\u2019Nelly in 2003.
\nThis stereotype could be linked to the global expectation of a woman\u2019s role as mother or
\nprimary caretaker in the family (Harris, et al., 2004). This common stereotype is as
\nfollows: if a woman\u2019s focus is on bearing children, she would subsequently be taking
\ntime off, and could not be considered an effective front-line executive. The Harris study
\nlooks at a case example in Chile, whereby Chilean marital status can be an important
\nconsideration during the hiring process and; it is generally featured at the top of a
\nresume with other essentials such as name, address, and phone number, along with a
\nphotograph. A young, married woman with no children can be considered a \u201crisky
\ninvestment\u201d because the perception is that she will soon have children, leave her job,
\nand the company will have to pay for maternity expenses (Ibid).
\nNevertheless, many women who choose to have children still maintain high career
\naspirations and often get stuck in less challenging or demanding jobs. This is also
\nchanging as a number of male partners and husbands of working women are staying
\nhome to care for their children (Ibid).
\nIn Korea, the women labour force participation rate has rapidly increased, in 1960, it
\nwas 26.8 percent, in 1970, 37.7 percent, in 1980, 36.8 percent, 1990, 47.0 percent and in
\n1995, 48.3 percent. It reached a high of 49.5 percent in 1997 (Cho, 2002). It is lower
\nthan that of major industrialized countries as seen in the following table (Min, 2006).
\n\u03f2\u03f3
\nTable 23 Korea\u2019s female labor market participation rate
\n45%(\u201988) \u013a 49.8 %(\u201997) \u013a48.6%(\u201900)\u013a48.9%(\u201903)\u013a49.8%(\u201904)\u013a50.1%(\u201905)
\nSource: Min M.S. Strategies and action plans for creating jobs for women of Korea: Korea\u2019s challenge and
\nstrategy for utilization of female work force, 2006. The data surveyed by National Statistical
\nOffice
\nNote: the proportion of women in employment to women in working ages who are 15 years and older
\nTable 24 Female labour market participation rate by nation in 2004
\nKorea Japan US Sweden OECD
\naverage
\nWomen labour force
\nparticipation rate (%)
\n53.9 60.2 69.2 76.6 60.1
\nSource: Min M.S. Strategies and action plans for creating jobs for women of Korea: Korea\u2019s challenge and
\nstrategy for utilization of female work force, 2006. The data from OECD Employment Outlook
\n(2005), OECD Society at a Glance (2005)
\nNote: OECD average female labor market participation rate; proportion of women in employment to
\nwomen in working ages between 15 and 64
\nIn reality, Korea\u2019s women labour market participation rate is lower than commonly
\nfound. Korea still has plenty of room for improvement with regard to discrimination
\nagainst women in the work place due to the typically traditional view that a woman
\nshould be a housewife, despite recent progress promoting gender equality. Especially the
\ntypical Korean family still exists in the nucleus of the family-community and demands
\nobedience from women to keep the home, cook and take care of their babies. Therefore a
\ncareer at sea for a Korean woman is full of obstacles and certainly not very much
\npromoted in comparison with other occupations.
\nMomoko Kitada (2009b) stated, in the case of women seafarers, that it is more
\ncomplicate to keep a balance between their sea lives and maintaining a relationship
\nbefore marriage. In such a circumstance, consequently, many women weigh the pros and
\ncons in their minds which decision would be better for them, and then, most decide to
\ngive up their seafaring career.
\n\u03f2\u03f4
\nIn the Korean case, there is no record of the number of women seafarers who have
\nmarried and continued working onboard in cargo ships. Even when married, they
\ntransfer to shore based job or leave the ship before they get a baby. Even though Korea
\nhas no official data indicating married women, there may be a certain level of social
\npressure or traditional social needs on a woman transferring to shore-base jobs or staying
\nat home after becoming a mother (Ibid).
\nApart from the above state, in Korea, as indicated by the M-Curve, it is possible to see
\nthe trend of women in their twenties and thirties who are taking on a lighter role in the
\nwork environment when they re-enter the job market after giving birth, compared to the
\nkind of work they used to take on previous to childbirth and nurturing (Jang, 2006).
\nHowever, also here Korea has no official record regarding re-emerging the seafaring
\nmarket after giving birth.
\nSeafaring requires being onboard for several months, in fact that might not satisfy the
\nsocial role of mother or women. Thus, the social pressure or traditional social
\nresponsibility might make her confused when deciding to be away from home or staying
\nat sea when she comes of a marriageable age or before marriage in general (Kitada,
\n2009b).
\nLikewise from this, society has to have the common recognition of the importance of the
\nutilization of the women work force. Particularly, when both men and women have a
\nfamily, they try to accept social responsibility, not only for on women (Min, 2006). This
\nwill be the solution to the utilization of a women seafarer work force and the way
\ntowards sustainable development.
\n\u03f2\u03f5
\n6.4 Gender inequality and unequal promotion opportunities
\nUnequal promotion opportunities for women seafarers might be a consequence of sexual
\ndiscrimination. Many individuals believe those gender-based preferences, whereby
\nindividuals may be characterized as stereotypically masculine or feminine, in other
\nwords, and a male with a masculine identity or a female with a feminine identity
\n(O\u2019Reilly & O\u2019Neill, 2003). While sex is biologically determined, gender is rather a
\nsocial construction, a product of socialization and experience (Ibid). Nevertheless, the
\ngender inequality and unequal opportunity for women seafarers is often faced when
\napplying for a job or promote in shipping industry. It seems that there is still
\nconsiderable resistance in shipping companies to hire and accept women.
\nWhen a women applies to a shipping companies in Korea, she faces an unequal
\nopportunity as the following statement shows,
\n\u201cWhen I saw many of my female classmates and alumnae giving up embarkations
\nbecause there are too few opportunities for female officers be employed in a
\nshipping company. For example, when I graduated, the qualifications of female
\nstudents applying to the H Company were much higher than those of male students.
\nHowever, despite such good qualifications and a passion for embarkation, only a
\nfew female officers were recruited, so many of my remaining friends were forced
\nto choose land-based jobs.\u201d
\nIn addition, four female ex-seafarers in Korea appealed to attain the same opportunities
\nas the male colleagues.
\n\u201cThe opportunities for embarkation shall be offered on equal terms. Although
\nsomewhat difficult for now to realize, I would like to express my opinion more
\nfreely, it is necessary for companies; not to limit the number of female officers
\nwhen recruiting.[\u2026].\u201d
\n\u03f3\u03ec
\n\u201cMost companies say that they will not discriminate female applicants, but most
\nof them recruit only one female applicant. I heard that major shipping company
\nemploys a female applicant for formality\u2019s sake because it is forced to do so.\u201d
\n\u201cActually, except some large shipping companies such as H Merchant Marine, H
\nShipping or S shipping, there is little change for a woman to embark.\u201d
\n\u201cHowever, the economic recession reduced the quota for female students, as all
\nthe male students could not get onboard. Shipping companies did not want to
\nprovide opportunities for female students as they thought that female students tend
\nto disembark soon. I understand that male students need to get some advantages as
\nthey have to complete alternative military duties.\u201d
\nSuch evidence tends to support the argument that the shipping companies have not
\nprovided an equal opportunity to join ships or work longer period at sea. Many female
\nex-seafarers officers found that they were refused opportunities to be recruited as
\nofficers or cadets.
\nHowever, interestingly here are different points of view towards the issues of promotion
\nof women. The study of Belcher et al., (2003), described that their gender might have
\nadvantages in terms of promotion prospects as this statement describes,
\n\u201cBecause there are so few women at sea, companies see that promoting a woman is
\ngood for publicity. They can brag about how many women they have at sea.[\u2026]
\nOslo, I think they think that if they don\u2019t promote her quickly enough, then she
\ncould say, \u2018well, that is sexist. You are discriminating against me because I am a
\nwoman.\u2019 So, if anything, I think it may be a little bit quicker so that they don\u2019t get
\nseen as being sexist and they get seen in a good light because they have got women
\nat sea in positions of rank.\u201d
\n\u03f3\u03ed
\nIn fact that many women officers agree that they are not discriminated against in terms
\nof promotion onboard if they are already working in a shipping company. However,
\nmany companies are unwilling to recruit women seafarers in the first place (Ibid). In
\nreality, it seems that women do have fewer opportunities to be recruited than men.
\n6.5 Inadequate accommodations and the environment
\nThe topic (sample nursing essay examples by the best nursing assignment writing service) of improving the living conditions onboard\u2019 is not only for women, but also
\nfor all of seafarers. Peter Cremers (2010) of the Hong Kong based Anglo-Estern Ship
\nManagement Services, emphasizes the importance of the quality of life at sea,
\n\u201cTo make our industry more attractive, the living conditions onboard must be
\nimproved to be in line with the expectations of the youngsters. The minimum
\nrequirements must be upgraded so that the accommodation onboard feels like a
\n\u2018home\u2019 and not a posting to a remote location.\u201d (The Sea, 2010).
\nBasically, if the shipping industry aspires to attract high quality recruits, the daily
\nconditions and facilities have to improve accordingly. In general, it can be said that
\nships\u2019 living accommodations are strictly functional or of ergonomic design, not social
\nstimulation (The Sea, 2010). For commercial reasons, it seems that most ships are
\ndesigned considering economic and efficiency in order to load more cargo, and do not
\nconsider how to make seafarers as comfortable as their home accommodation. Many
\nseafarers have to stay and live onboard until disembarkation, often for up to 6 month
\nperiods. The ship might be considered a home for seafarers.
\nOn a similar theme, even though women seafarers work on the ships, normally, most
\nwomen seafarers are engaged in either major shipping companies in which
\ntechnological large vessels like container vessels, bulk carriers according to the result of
\n\u03f3\u03ee
\nquestionnaires in chapter 5. One of the reasons is that vessels have unsuitable facilities
\nfor work and living for women seafarers, obviously, some small vessels have only one
\npublic\/common bath and toilet room, not a private bathroom. Which women can work
\nthere for 6 months in such difficult environmental conditions?
\nOne human resource manager in a shipping company during a telephone interview,
\nunderlined the issue of inadequate ships living spaces for females. Even where the
\nshipping companies suffered in the supply of qualified seafarers, there is no room to
\nemploy women seafarers as alternative employees. The company added that it is not
\nefficient given their limited budgets because they would have to consider providing new
\nfacilities or modifying facilities and the accommodation onboard their ships tended to be
\nsatisfying the minimum requirements according to the International rules.
\n\u201cI know that most women who graduate from maritime universities are smart and
\nqualified as officers. However, if we consider hiring women, we have to seriously
\nconsider all aspects that will affect what we have to do for them, such as inadequate
\nfacilities, the likelihood of problems relating to sexuality, or [\u2026] So, to reduce the
\nchance of the probability of the problem, we hire stupid men rather than smart
\nwomen.\u201d
\n6.6 Relatively low social recognition
\nWhenever the author recounted a seafarers life, the most heard words is that \u2018oh, you\u2019re
\nlucky, you must be able to eat raw fish easily whenever you want\u2019 when I introduced
\nmyself to people as \u2018a seafarer\u2019. It means that most Koreans have preconceptions,
\nmisconceptions and stereotypes about \u2018seafarers\u2019 in terms of s merchant ships. One
\ncommon misbelief is that there is a nebulous concept regarding merchant ship\u2019s such as
\nthere is no line between a merchant vessel and a fishing vessel. Therefore, people can
\n\u03f3\u03ef
\nthink seafarers always try to catch fish at sea, casting a net into the rough sea, and
\nfighting the rough sea on rolling ships under heavy weather. This is one simple imagine
\nabout of seafaring is in Korea.
\nA similar case of one of the interviewees from a Korean women ex-seafarer who has
\nexperience of less than 2 years onboard a car carrier,
\n\u201cI said I am an officer on a cargo ship. However, they tried to say something a few
\nseconds later as the majority of them could not recognize what women officers do
\non such ships. And then, most of them said, sure, \u2018oh, great! Great you\u2019 but they
\nlooked at me with sympathy. Or others say, \u2018you are a really strong person more
\nthan a man, how is sea life and can you bear the hard work, for example the
\nfishing?\u201d
\nOne other example of widespread ignorance and prejudice of seafaring is expressed in
\nthe following statement from a group interview by Kim (2008a).
\n\u201c[\u2026] just unsatisfied with ignorance of seafaring in general. Whenever I identify
\nmy job as seafarer, most of them replied and asked me how much fishes catch or
\nhow often I eat a raw fish due to their ignorance and misunderstanding of the
\ndifferent between merchant ship and a fishing boat.[\u2026] comparatively low
\nseafaring and shipping company awareness in common.\u201d
\n\u201cYes, I absolutely agree with that. It might say that the shipping company should
\nconsider seriously the low awareness of seafaring relatively in common. They
\nhave to raise their brand name value as a shipping company and also
\ncorrespondently let all the people know the seafaring. [\u2026] There seems to be a
\nlack of any active effort to inform the public who seafarers are and what we do.
\n[\u2026] if shipping companies take a positive attitude to inform then, it can help
\n\u03f3\u03f0
\npeople to change stereotype of the awareness, but also might raise our self esteem
\nas seafarers.\u201d
\nThe above two examples from former women seafarers reflect the one side of reality of
\nseafaring on cargo ships in Korea. To reduce the wrong social recognition, the company
\nmight not only contribute to give right information and a positive image of shipping to
\nthe public, but also improve the image of seafaring as a professional global occupation.
\n6.7 Job dissatisfaction
\nOne may consider job satisfaction in terms of salary. One thing is clear from the
\nresearch findings is that the salary is not the sole motivating factor in sustaining a career
\nat sea. Obviously there is a need to look at a number of areas such as whether seafarers
\nfeel satisfied or dissatisfied with their job, it is difficult to define just one or two reason
\nwhy. However, the subject of this paragraph might be connected with the working
\nenvironment, which is referred to as, a \u2018special job environment relative to shore-based
\njobs\u2019, not in terms of their own tasks on ship. For example, job dissatisfaction can be
\ncaused by gender issues, relatively low social recognition, isolation, family opposition
\ntoward seafaring, limitation of allowed shore leave35, crew size and overworked.
\nIn accordance with Seo and Kim\u2019s study on \u2018A preliminary study on the stress
\nperception and ways to cope with stress for seafarers\u2019 (2005), is describes that the
\npercentage of satisfied seafarers with a job is equal to 28.5 and the percentage of
\ndissatisfied respondents is equal to 71.5. Surprisingly, this ratio of dissatisfaction
\nrespondent is a much higher percentage than 11.6 percent as indicated in the research by<\/p>\n
\u03ef\u03f1 In many countries, seafarers are not allowed shore leave according to the ISPS Code.
\n\u03f3\u03f1
\nLim j.K. (1992),36 and 25.8 percent in the research by KIMFT (1998).37 The important
\npoint is that the ratio of job dissatisfaction has taken a sudden turn for the worse, and has
\nrapidly increased in recent.
\nThe impact of job dissatisfaction may affect transfers to shore-based jobs. Thus, as
\nmentioned earlier, all aspects of job dissatisfaction can have a great ripple effect on each
\nother elements as being formed and not only on a single particular issue.<\/p>\n
36 See for \u2018 A study on seafaring activity and job satisfaction\u2019 by Lim J.K in 1992
\n37 See for \u2018 A study on safe operation and measures against oil carrier in near Korea coast\u2019 by Korea
\nInstitute and Maritime Fisheries Technology in 1998
\n\u03f3\u03f2
\nChapter 7 Corporate Social Responsibility
\n7.1 The shipping industry through CSR activities
\nThe concept of \u2018Corporate Social Responsibility\u2019 (CSR) has become a major aspect of
\naspect of corporate strategic planning and policy in recent years because of expanding
\ninternational markets and growing economic globalization business (Verena, 2010;
\nFafaliou, et al, 2002). This powerful concept creates the wider society\u2019s awareness of
\nsocial and environmental needs as well as the companies have to face challenge of
\nbusiness alliances and stakeholders to establish CRS in the mainstream of their business
\npractices and policy making \u037eFafaliou, et al., 2002). CSR, recognizes the crucial role of
\nbusiness, for example, the company manager has to include in their concerns how
\nmarket value is generated and perceived, the role of corporate reputation and the role of
\nmanagement (Ibid) itself as well to consider the close link between stakeholders and
\nemployees, customers, stockholders, collaborators, local community and nongovernmental organizations (Kim, 2009).
\nNevertheless, in fact, the term CSR, is not a well-established term yet and is not very
\nmuch in use among private and public Korean companies \u037eIbid). Whilst the discussion
\nand debate of CSR has been wide ranging among many developed countries such as
\nEurope and USA, contrarily, in the case of Korea, there has not yet been enough
\nconsideration and study regarding CSR in both practically and theatrically so far (Ibid).
\nThis chapter attempts to be a first step forward towards exploring the definition of the
\nCSR concept and the new paradigm of CSR from a human element perspective that
\nfocus on employees. Subsequent sections of this chapter focus on the role of CSR
\ntoward seafarers especially on women seafarers. From the shopping company point of
\nview, there is a need to face the challenges better in the social and working environment
\n\u03f3\u03f3
\nin accordance with the results of the questionnaires and interviews. This research found
\nthat there are considerable factors to improve company policies particularly on the
\nsupport systems for women and the social environment in order to provide more
\nopportunities for women to go to sea. Therefore, the conclusions of the analysis and
\nissues based on the above research results would highlight the need for women seafarers.
\n7.2 Definition of CSR
\nThe European Commission has offered a definition of CSR, in 200138as follows;
\n\u201cMost definitions of corporate social responsibility describe it as a concept
\nwhereby companies integrate social and environmental concerns in their business
\noperations and in their interaction with their stakeholders on a voluntary basis.\u2019
\nThe Norwegian Shipowner\u2019s Association, who voluntarily adopted CSR commented that
\nCSR is \u2018the willing inclusion by businesses of social and environmental concerns in the
\ncommercial activities and their relations with their stakeholders.39\u2019 (Bohler, K. L. (2008).
\nFurthermore, the European Commission (2001) briefly provides a clear statement of the
\nrole of CSR in changing global market environment as described below;
\n\u201cAs companies face the challenges of a changing environment in the context of
\nglobalization and in particular the internal market, they are increasingly aware that
\ncorporate social responsibility can be of direct economic value. Although the
\nprime responsibility of a company is generating profits, companies can at the same
\ntime contribute to social and environmental objectives, through integrating
\ncorporate social responsibility as a strategic investment into their core business
\nstrategy, their management instruments and their operations.\u201d (EU, 2001)<\/p>\n
38 See Green Paper: Promoting a European framework for Corporate Social Responsibility. from the
\nWorld Wide Web: http:\/\/eur-lex.europa.eu\/LexUriServ\/site\/en\/com\/2001\/com2001_0366en01.pdf
\n39 See Bohler, K.L. \u2018CSR strategy focus top management commitment.\u2019 2008
\n\u03f3\u03f4
\nAmong the various roles of CSR, Beckman40 (2010) analyzes the importance of CSR as
\nfollows,
\n\u201cThe continuing commitment by business to behave ethically and contribute to
\neconomic development while improving the quality of life of the workforce and
\ntheir families, as well as of the local community and society at large.\u2019
\nBeckman (2010) emphasize employee loyalty as one of the most crucial roles of CSR in
\nhelping in the recruitment of new staff and retention of employees. Also supporting the
\nabove idea, the Nautical Institute (2004), states,
\n\u2018 A quality company also invests in its people, by providing them with a safe and
\nsecure working environment, decent living conditions and fair terms of
\nemployment, and by promoting a Company Culture though the communication
\nand empowerment.\u2019
\nSpecifically, there is a correlation between the concept of CSR and the employee
\nelement. Fafaliou et al. (2002), demonstrate by explaining that stakeholders may be both
\ninternal (e.g. employees) and external to an enterprise (e.g. customers, suppliers,
\nshareholders, financial institutions, the local community). In summary, the internal
\nsocial responsibility of an enterprise is considered as the basis for and an integral part of
\nits external responsible activity. The areas in which internal CSR is implemented
\nincorporates respect for employees\u2019 rights (e.g. assurance of fair and prompt payment,
\nsupport of employees\u2019 balance of work and family time, respect of their leisure time),
\nsecurity and even improvement of health and safety conditions, training, etc. The direct
\nbeneficiaries of CSR internal responsibility are the corporations\u2019 human resources (Ibid).<\/p>\n
40 See reference, Beckman, R.C \u2018Successful cases of CSR Activities. The problem of the global shortage
\nof seafarers and the role of the shipping industry through CRS activities\u2019 during the conference by
\nJapan International Transport Institute & The Nippon Foundation, 2010.
\n\u03f3\u03f5
\nOverall, CSR is expected to take a proactive approach to sustainable development (EU,
\n2001
\n7.3 Corporate social responsibility: Internal dimension
\nAccordingly, the European Commission (2001)41 defined CSR as composed of both
\ninternal and external dimensions. The former, as mentioned, may be employees, while
\nthe latter may be customers, suppliers, shareholders, financial institutions, and the local
\ncommunity according Fafaliou\u2019s study (2001). Of course, the theory of CSR relies on
\nbeing systematic and developing employees to suit to new eras, and the new paradigm
\nconcept of CSR encompasses the practical use and contribution to social evolution
\nthrough innovative changes in the 21st century.
\nAs Kim (2009) declared, CSR evolved into a more practical stage from a controversial
\nstage at the end of the 20th century. As the result of innovation to the CSR theory, it has
\nbeen broadened to include the overall responsibility such as the legal, economic,
\npolitical, social, cultural, artistic and that concrete social responsibility and
\naccountability have been systematized (Ibid). In addition, its main stakeholders are
\nnamely the employees, customers, stockholders, collaborators, local community and non
\ngovernment organizations. Amongst the stakeholders above, the protection of the rights
\nand interests of employees, have been established as follows;
\n(1) salary, promotion of equity, (2) stability and continuity of employment efforts
\n(3) efforts to create jobs (4) women employees, minority groups (a multi culture
\nfamilies) of elimination of discrimination (5) drug and alcohol addiction,<\/p>\n
\u03f0\u03ed Green Paper, \u2018 Promoting a European framework for Corporate Social Responsibility.\u2019 from the World
\nWide Web: http:\/\/eur-lex.europa.eu\/LexUriServ\/site\/en\/com\/2001\/com2001_0366en01.pdf
\n\u03f4\u03ec
\nprotection from sexually transmitted diseases (6) education, training, strengthening
\n(technical improvements, capacity building, strengthening retraining) (7) effort to
\nprovide communication channels with employees (Kim, 2009).
\nIn addition, CSR describes what specifics subjects would be satisfied employees through
\nthe company\u2019s social responsibility as shown in Table 25, according to Kim\u2019s theory
\n(2009).
\nTable 25 Satisfaction with employees through company ability
\nobject The detailed company social responsibility and contribution
\nSuitable employment system for newly graduated school or university students
\nConsider employment for older workers, physical or financial handicapped person,
\nKeep control or balance between gender, academic achievement, age etc.
\nEstablish and implement the welfare programme
\nEstablish the welfare fund and efficient operation
\nOperate nursery or day care centers for married women workers
\nEducational support for children
\nSupport to form personal property through employee stock ownership association,
\nindividual retirement account etc
\nFinancial support for marriage and death
\nSeverance payment system
\nSupport for pension, pension plan and industrial accident compensation insurance
\nActual expense management for consumer\u2019s cooperation
\nEmployee
\nTemporary support for dismissed an employees
\nSource: Kim S.S . \u2018A Study on the history of theoretical changes of corporate social responsibility, Korean
\nCorporation Management Association, May, 2009.
\n7.4 Corporate social responsibility in shipping companies
\nAround 90 percent of world trade (UNCTAD, 2009) is carried by the international
\nseaborne trade. Seaborne trade continues to expand, bringing benefits and goods for
\n\u03f4\u03ed
\nconsumers across the world through competitive costs. There is growing efficiency of the
\nshipping industry as new modern technology transport infrastructure and increased
\neconomic liberalization occurs, and the prospects for the shipping industries further will
\nbe more growth gradually strengthening this industry. Shipping company services are
\nproduced to satisfy the delivery of various cargoes on time, secure and safely according
\ntheir contracts with their customers. Primarily, how to proper handle cargoes and safe
\ntransport is the main objective of a shipping company\u2019s goals. In short, it seems that most
\nshippers emphasis this objective of a company\u2019s goals rather than how to deal with their
\nemployees by providing a good working environment.
\nHowever, the reason for the existence of company seems to be changing to innovate to
\nsurvive in the competitive environment of the shipping market. The trend and strategy of a
\nQuality Company is to change and innovate and adapt control mechanisms that will be
\nbetter for all of the elements, including the human element which is a current trend as
\ndescribed Figure 12.
\nSource : Kim S.S . \u2018A Study on the history of theoretical changes of corporate social
\nresponsibility, Korean Corporation Management Association, May, 2009.
\nFigure 12 New paradigm of CSR
\n\u03f4\u03ee
\nIn Figure 12, the centric business management theory suggests that the reason for the
\nexistence of a company was to maximize profits as a value of an enterprises\u2019 existence.
\nHowever, the 21st century business needs to shift the paradigm to the \u2018Copernican theory\u2019
\nmanagement from the \u2018geocentric theory\u2019 management. Simply, a new paradigm of CSR
\nfrom the Copernican theory is recommended so that a company should wrap its planet and
\nturn around. This means, that both shipping companies and employees including all
\nstakeholders are in a win-win situation.
\nIt is evident that in order to survive in the competitive shipping market, companies have
\nnot only to attempt to improve the control mechanisms such as the safety and quality
\nstandards of shipping operations, but also need to create a healthy work environment for
\nemployees and to address stakeholder\u2019s needs. If shipping companies adopt an effective
\nCSR policy, it will not only improve the image of the shipping industry, it will indirectly
\nHelp in the recruitment and retention of seafarers (Beckman, 2010). In addition, it is
\ninherent that stakeholder relationships and long-term value-oriented company strategies,
\nrather than short-term trading to pursue a relationship (Lee, 2010).
\nThis paper, as already mentioned, focuses on seafarers and especially women seafarers.
\nTherefore, the author addresses the strategy to survive together, from both the company
\nand the female seafarers\u2019 perspective through the results of the questionnaires and
\ninterviews in the following paragraph. Therefore, what are the strategies and challenges of
\nCSR that arise from seafarers, especially for women seafarers, to get an opportunity to
\nhave longer onboard careers, and to retain seafarers? This paper explores the needs and
\nexpectations of seafarers towards their company activities, what will be the established
\ninstitutional frameworks of CSR. The focus of this research discussion has been on how
\napproaches attract seafarers and are established according to CSR activity.
\n\u03f4\u03ef
\nChapter 8 Conclusion and recommendations
\nBefore drawing any conclusions, the top priority for shipping companies should
\nobviously be to regard seafarers as one of the important skateholder elements in any
\ncompany, not just a cost element in economic terms (Monthly Maritime Korea, 2008). In
\nshortly, there is needs to be an awareness of seafarers as contributors in accomplishing a
\nhigh qualtiy seaborne trade service a cross the world, that is qualified professionals who
\nenjoy a rich work exprience. Another crucial point is how effectivly a manager or
\ndecision maker in a shipping company can encourage and instill pride in seafarers.
\nTherefore, current the problems which surround today seafarers will be solved when
\nshipping companies change their perception towards seafarers first of all, not just
\nbecuase they are employees. Shipping company should consider that seafarers are as an
\none of bussiness partners as well as one other skateholders. Therefore, the author
\nrecommends what ultimate strategies need to be created to make a working environment
\nfocusing on women seafarers as a priority.
\n8.1 Strategic expansion of women seafarers
\n8.1.1 Support and motivation to go to sea
\nThe author believes that shipping companies have been already prepared to listen to
\nwomen seafarers attentively as to the support they require on board ship. Today,
\nshipping companies should be capable of contributing to the development of a corporate
\nculture in the more proactive and practical way. To achieve the ultimate corporate
\nculture, it must be borne in mind that the key point is to motivate and encourage women
\nseafarers as well as establish a vision of a seafarers job (Hwang, 2008b).
\n\u03f4\u03f0
\nShipping companies are recommended to explore the possibility of a new job-version for
\nthe woman seafarer which they would be the best professional career in maritime field
\nas well as they would be a high quality human resources.
\nTherefore, shipping companies need to take a view a long-term perspective and make a
\ndrastic investment (Ibid) in women seafarers within future-oriented thinking. In order to
\nacknowledge how to motive women seafarers within shipping company, this research
\nadvocates a more practical approach as described in the following paragraphs of this
\nchapter.
\n8.1.2 Create consideration for equal opportunities
\nDefinitely, the number of women seafarers is a minority in the shipping industry
\nthroughout the world. However, it is evident that many women desire to attain a job at
\nsea. Despite the rising numbers of applications for positions on board ship in recent
\nyears, it has been hard to open an \u2018employment\u2019 door in this competitive job market.
\nGender equality is the basis of civilized, human rights and a developed society. Also the
\nissues regarding gender equality in the maritime industry are now being raised
\nuniversally. Giving more opportunities to women seems to be a pretty trite slogan but, as
\na matter of fact, such opportunities are not given equally to women in the shipping
\nindustry. Consequently, although there are established as high quality policies for
\nemployment, they are not often focused on women seafarers.
\nIt is obvious that there is a diversity of reasons for shipping companies if they hesitate to
\nwillingly hire women. However, if they seldom offer the same opportunity, how do
\nwomen prove they have the qualification and ability to do a seafaring job? The shipping
\ncompany should establish an employment equality policy and encourage the hiring of
\nwomen on a similar basis to men (Aggrey, 2000).
\n\u03f4\u03f1
\n8.1.3 Training and education for understanding and harmonizing with females
\nMany shipping companies seek to create a workplace environment that is inspiring and
\ndevelops diverse talent in order to carry out the performance of ship operations in an
\neffective way. A key component in this system focuses on improving the ways to verify
\nknowledge and the skill mastery of the ship\u2019s crew such as maneuvering, cargo handling,
\nship handling simulator, job familiar course, support on-the-job training and E-learning.
\nThe majority of shipping companies have developed a uniform set of training and
\neducational programs, and practical material for seafarers in order to effectively improve
\ntheir skills, namely, \u2018best tailored training\u2019.
\nThe more proactive shipping companies have established their own training and
\neducation centers and hire their own training instructors to enhance the skills of seafarers.
\nIt seems that shipping companies and training institutions are shifting gears from doing
\nonly what is required, to doing what is right to improve the skills seafarers and the
\noverall safety at sea. More detailed training programmes of the ship, should include the
\ndrills to be carried out over regular periods, in accordance with the International
\nregulations such as SOLAS, MARPOL, STCW 78\/95.
\nHowever, shipping companies need to provide a gender familiarization programme to be
\nharmonized with females. Even the employed seafarers prior to embarkation on ships are
\nprovided with familiarization training according to STCW before being assigned to
\nparticular duties, which does not involve gender issues. In general, it includes particulars
\nof ship, type of cargoes, main ship sailing routes and other relevant basic information to
\nprovide for a safe and efficient performance. However, the author would recommend
\nthat the most significant thing to understand the gender issues would be a shift in the
\nmale seafarer\u2019s awareness through the gender familiarization programme. The gender
\nfamiliarization programmer should contain elements from the basic gender issues of how
\nto create balance and harmony between different genders in the work environment in
\n\u03f4\u03f2
\norder to reduce the potential for sexual discrimination against females, cultivate the
\nship\u2019s communal culture, as well as create a gender friendly working environment.
\nAlso it is important that the programme should include an acceptance of the ship\u2019s
\nhierarchy when women are established in senior positions. Although infrequent, there
\nstill exists the problem of male seafarers who are unable to take orders from women
\n(Belcher, et al., 2003)
\n8.1.4 Establish a sex harassment policy and control
\nSpecial education programmes regarding sexual harassment are commonly conducted in
\nthe industry in accordance with national regulations. This education is under the Article
\n13 of the \u2018Act on Equal employment and Support for Work-Family Reconciliation\u2019 and
\nthe \u2018Framework Act on Women\u2019s Development\u2019.42 Under Korean Law, the employer
\nshould conduct education to \u2018Prevent Sexual Harassment in the Workplace\u201943 at least a
\nonce year,44 in order to prevent sexual harassment in the work place.
\nSuch education is often done prior to new employees joining a ship or at the
\ncommencement of a sea voyage. In general, the training includes illustrations of<\/p>\n
42 Framework Act on Women\u2019s Development adopted 1995, December 30, last amendment on Act
\nnumber 8852, 2008, February 29 The purpose of this Act is to promote the equality between men and
\nwomen in all the areas of politics, economy, society and culture and to facilitate the women\u2019s
\ndevelopment by stipulating the fundamental matters with regard to the obligation, etc. of the State and
\nlocal governments for realizing an idea of equality between men and women under the Constitution of
\nthe Republic of Korea. Source form Article 1(purpose) under the \u2018Framework Act on Women\u2019s
\nDevelopment\u2019 43 Article 13 (Education to Prevent Sexual Harassment in the Workplace) under the \u2018Act on equal
\nemployment and support for work-family reconciliation\u2019;
\n(1) An employer shall conduct education in order to prevent Sexual Harassment in the workplace
\n(hereinafter referred to as the \u201ceducation to prevent sexual harassment\u201d) and to create a safe working
\nenvironment for workers. (Amended 2007 December, 21) 44 Article 3 (Education to Prevent Sexual Harassment at Work) under the \u2018Act on equal employment and
\nsupport for work-family reconciliation\u2019;
\n(1) Employers shall, pursuant to Article 13 of the Act, conduct education on preventing sexual
\nharassment at work at least once a year. (Amended by Presidential Decree No. 19366, Feb. 28, 2006)
\n\u03f4\u03f3
\nunacceptable, unwanted behavior, sexist remarks, sex-related behavior and details of
\ncompany disciplinary procedures. It seems that employees tend to be very positive about
\nthe existence and high profile of such policies.
\nObviously, the majority of shipping companies conduct education on sexual harassment
\nfor employees both shore-based and onboard ship at least a once year. Some shipping
\ncompanies conduct education for new seafarers prior to embarkation.
\nHowever, this research indicates that small and medium sized shipping companies have
\nroutinely provided a sexual harassment procedure under company policy as a matter of
\nform. Even though, these companies have a sexual harassment policy according to a
\nquality system, it seems these policies are not sufficient to prevent the problem.
\nIn order to guarantee a safer ship board environment, the author would suggest that
\nshipping companies need to install formal grievance procedures, whereby employees are
\ninvited to air their grievances which relate to sex discrimination, sexual harassment or
\nabuse of power and other aspects relating to sexual behavior. It should incorporate
\ndisciplinary action measures, follow-up measures, and assure the confidentiality of
\nemployees and identify the designated persons who deal with such enquiries relating to
\nthose issues. It should carry out the role as the reception window when women want to
\nreport their problems.
\n8.1.5 Establishment of specific policies for women seafarers
\nShipping companies should establish diversified welfare programmes for women such as
\nthe granting of medical leave for menstrual periods, pregnancy policy, granting of
\nmaternity leave and reinstatement of employment. Such a menstrual leave is stated under
\nthe Article 83 (Menstruation Holiday45) of the \u2018Act on Seafarers46\u2019 under Korea Law,<\/p>\n
45 Article 83 (Menstruation Holiday): The shipowner shall grant a female seafarer one day of menstruation
\n\u03f4\u03f4
\nwhere women seafarers are entitled to one day of menstrual leave every month.
\nHowever, with a ship\u2019s special duty working environment and the rotation of duty time
\nbetween three duty officers per day, it is not easy to request and receive menstrual leave
\nwithout adequate notice (Lee, 1999).
\nThis research indicates that most respondents want to establish company policies for
\nwomen. For example, when a female officer embarks after childbirth, the company will
\nhave to support the upbringing of the baby (allowance for diapers, formulas, etc.) and to
\nallow the embarkation of a nursery governess. In other words, companies should
\nconsider offering proper welfare policies for women to work comfortably after childbirth.
\nThe above examples of menstrual leave are far from the present situation in Korea
\naccording this research data 47 ; however, within a future-oriented policy, shipping
\ncompanies should attempt to provide a proactive welfare programme to guarantee
\nwomen that they would be treated with a better working environment.
\nAlso, the most important message is that it is essential to create a corporate culture in
\nwhich women can request access to the above programmes without any concerns the
\ncompanies would not accept such requests.
\n8.1.6 Females working together
\nThe author\u2019s research demonstrates that most women officers feel the impacts of
\nisolation or loneliness as they are the only females on board ship. The majority of<\/p>\n
holiday in a month. (Amended 1990 August, 1)
\n46 Act on Seafarers adopted 1962, January 10, last amendment on Act number 9851, 2009, December 29
\nThe purpose of this Act is to prescribe the duties, services, standard of labor conditions, occupational
\nsecurity, and education and training for seafarers so as to keep the orders on the vessel, to secure and
\nimprove seafarer’s basic life, and also to promote seafarers’ qualities. Source form Article 1(purpose)
\nunder the \u2018Act on Seafarers\u2019 \u03f0\u03f3 This research found that there are no records of women who that re-enter shipping companies as
\nseafarers after childbirth.
\n\u03f4\u03f5
\nwomen expressed difficulties with the lack of other women onboard to talk to and share
\ntheir feelings. To solve these problems, the author would suggest that shipping
\ncompanies should attempt to put more than one woman onboard for voyages of
\nsignificant periods (Kitada, 2009a; Kim, 200848; Kim, 2008a49).
\nThe author agrees with Kitada (2009a) who has recommended that to increase the
\nnumber of women seafarers there is a need to change the mentality and create a better
\nworking environment for both men and women. Also her study quotes a \u2018critical mass
\ntheory\u2019 to emphasis the number of women seafarers, indicating that there should be at
\nleast three women in a crew of ten persons on a ship.
\nTo put more women together onboard ship may be difficult from practical points of view,
\nnevertheless, it is important that shipping companies attempt to implement the
\nplacement of women together on board the same ship.
\n8.1.7 Creation of a family-friendly company and social culture
\nMajor shipping companies provide, an \u2018On Board Ship with Family\u2019 Programme within
\nthe regular company\u2019s policy. This has been evaluated as a positive effect and that it can
\nprovide emotional stability for the seafarers and greatly inspire and motivate seafarers
\ntowards ship performance (Kim, 2008b50). For example, the K shipping company took
\nthe step with the \u2018On Board Ship with Family\u2019 Programme\u2019 in 1975, and the programme
\nhas expanded for seafarers who have a minimum experience onboard ship of at least 2
\nyears, and includes wives or husbands and children, up to a maximum of 3 persons per
\nseafarer. The programme has been limited to ship voyages, ship sailing routines and
\nsome types of ships due to safety and security reasons.<\/p>\n
48 See reference, Kim C.H. (2008)
\n49 See reference, Kim K.M (2008a)
\n50 See reference, Kim K.M. (2008b)
\n\u03f5\u03ec
\nNevertheless, many seafarers have undertaken the programme with their families and
\nactually the users who applied for this progamme is increasing within shipping
\ncompanies (Ibid).
\nThe \u2018On Board Ship with Family\u2019 Programme is one of the solutions for seafarers who
\ncan be far away from their families for a long period time, and feel isolated and lonely
\nunder the special ship circumstances. However, it is limited according to a company\u2019s
\npolicy to those who have enough careers and a limited family size. Surprisingly, the
\nmajority of women seafarers are single. Therefore, the author would recommend the
\nprogramme to be applied broader and more flexibly, for example, the programme would
\nbe open to parents, fianc\u00e9s, etc and encourage family members to visit the ship when at
\nberth.
\nAnother solution to encourage seafarers to choose a sea career is to make
\ncommunications available by Babsal (2009). The author would recommend that the
\nshipping companies provide communication tools to allow seafarers to instantly contact
\ntheir families, friends and loved ones. To attract young people to go to sea, shipping
\ncompanies should make full use of the advancement in scientific technology such as the
\ninternet. They are aware that such technology is available on board ships as a
\ncommunication tool that is virtually free; therefore, seafarers using this technology will
\nno longer feel they are alone in the center of the ocean anymore.
\n8.2 Concluding statement
\nAmartya Kumar Sen, an eminent Indian economist who won the Nobel Prize in
\nEconomic Science for his contribution to work on welfare economics in 1998, has stated,
\n(Song, 2006):
\n\u03f5\u03ed
\n\u201cNothing is more important in economic development than women\u2019s participation.\u201d
\nSeafarers, have been playing a key human resource role in the maritime industry.
\nTherefore, at this point of time, the employment of seafarers and welfare programmes
\nwithin shipping companies are significant factors towards encouraging seafarers, as well
\nas shipping companies to view seafarer employment from a long-term perspective and
\nmake a greater investment in women as seafarers.
\nInter alia, how we could efficiently utilize the female work force in the maritime labor
\nmarket is a major factor to increase the number of women seafarers. The integration of
\nwomen in the seafarer career is not possible without support from international
\norganizations and national governments alone or by any individual efforts. Company
\ncooperation is the most crucial factor (Min, 2006) as it creates jobs as well as a better
\nworking environment.
\nWhen shipping companies remove discrimination against women, hire people on their
\nperformance and attempt to enhance the organizational culture and institutions to set up
\ngender-neutral workplaces, the integration of women seafarers as a resource could bring
\nabout visible results (Ibid). This will be an effective solution to better utilize Korea’s
\nwomen seafarers and the way forward to sustainable development.
\nWho can forecast the sea of the future? The present research concludes that women
\nseafarers also greatly contribute to keeping the maritime environment and oceans safer
\nand clean in the future. The Deputy of TC in IMO, Tansey (2010) in a recent address
\nstated that, women had little chance to do this at present. Obviously, the author further
\nemphasizes stating that, \u2018women seafarers must be expected and they will respond as
\nkey actors in the maritime field in the near future.\u2019
\n\u03f5\u03ee
\nREFERENCES
\nAggrey, H.A. (2000). Women in the maritime industry: A review of female participation,
\nand their role in Maritime Education and Training (MET) in the 21st Centry.
\nWorld Maritime University, Malmo, Sweden.
\nBansal, A.K. (2009). World-wide manning crisis. International Federatin of
\nShipmasters\u2019s Associations. Annual review. 15-17.
\nBeckman, R.C. (2010, May). Successful cases of CSR Activities. The problem of the
\nglobal shortage of seafarers and the role of the shipping industry through CRS
\nactivities. London: Japan International Transport Institute & The Nippon
\nFoundation.
\nBelcher, P., Sampson H., Thomas M., Veiga J., & Zhao M. (2003). Women Seafarers:
\nglobal employment policies and practices. Geneva: International Labor Office.
\nBIMCO \/ ISF (2000). BIMCO\/ISF Manpower 2000 update: The worldwide demand for
\nand supply of seafarers. U.K: Warwick institute for employment research for
\nBIMCO & ISF.
\nBIMCO \/ ISF (2005). BIMCO\/ISF Manpower 2005 update: The worldwide demand for
\nand supply of seafarers. U.K: Warwick institute for employment research for
\nBIMCO & ISF.
\nBohler, K. L. (2008). CSR strategy focus top management commitment: Norwegian
\nShipowner\u2019s Association. (2008). Retrieved July 20, 2010 from the World Wide
\nWeb: https:\/\/monkessays.com\/write-my-essay\/navigateconferences.com\/downloads\/Bohler.pdf
\n\u03f5\u03ef
\nCho, U. (2002). Global capital and local patriarchy: the financial crisis and women
\nworkers in South Korea. London and New York: Routledge press.
\nEllis, N. & Simpson, H. (2008). The global labour market for seafarers working aboard
\nmerchant cargo ship 2003. UK: Seafarers International Research Centre.
\nEuropean Commission. (2001). Green Paper: Promoting a European framework for
\nCorporate Social Responsibility. Retrieved July 10, 2010 from the World Wide
\nWeb: http:\/\/eurlex.europa.eu\/LexUriServ\/site\/en\/com\/2001\/com2001_0366en01.pdf
\nFafaliou, B., Lekakou, M. & Theotokas, J. (2002). Corporate social responsibility in
\nGreek shipping. In Proceddings of IAME Pananma 2002 Conference.
\nPananma:International Association of Maritime Economists.
\nHaesa information. (2007, May, 7). Need to launch Reserve military service system soon.
\nRetrieved July 6, 2010 from the World Wide Web:
\nhttps:\/\/monkessays.com\/write-my-essay\/haesainfo.com\/news\/read.php?idxno=1204&rsec=MAIN\u00a7ion=M
\nAIN
\nHansen, H.L. & Jensen, J. (1998). Female seafarers adopt the high risk lifestyle of male
\nseafarers. Retrieved June 12, 2010 from the World Wide Web:
\nhttp:\/\/oem.bmj.com\/content\/55\/1\/49.full.pdf
\nHarris P.R., Moran R.T., and Moran S.V. (2004). Managing cultural differences: Global
\nleadership stratergies for the 21 century. (6 Eds.). USA: Elsevier Butterworth
\nHeinemann press.
\nHwang J.H. (2008a). The analysis of the current supply and demand for seafarers in
\nKorea and policy issues. The Hae Gi maonthly association bulletin. 494, 10-17.
\n\u03f5\u03f0
\nHwang J.H. (2008b, October). <\/p>\n
.
\n(Consideration for development of seafarers policy in Rep. of Korea.). Monthly
\nMaritime Korea. 2008. 10, 50-53
\nHwang S.J., IM N.K & Bae C.O. (2008). A study on analysis of the situation of
\nemployment for women at Mokpo Maritime University. The Korean Society
\nMarine Environment and Study, 2008, 63-67.
\nInternational Labour Organization. (2007). Gender equality around the world: Women
\nseafarers-fighting against the tide? Geneva: International Labor Office.
\nInternational Maritime Organization. (1998). Strategy for the integration of Women in
\nthe Maritime Sector. London: the Author.
\nInternational Maritime Organization. (1999). Women on board \u2013 ten years of the IMO
\nWomen in Development Programme. IMO news: The Magazine of the
\nInternational Maritime Organization, 3, 33-39.
\nInternational Maritime Organization. (1999, April 22). Women in development by the
\nSecretariat (TC 47\/8) London: Author.
\nInternational Maritime Organization. (2008, December 19). Promotion of the
\nparticipation of women in the maritime sector: Report on 2008 by the Secretariat
\n(TC 59\/10) London: Author.
\nInternational Maritime Organization. (2008, March 19). Promotion of the participation
\nof women in the maritime sector: Report on 20 years of IMO\u2019s Wonmen in
\nDevelopment(WID) Programme by the Secretariat (TC 58\/7\/1) London: Author.
\n\u03f5\u03f1
\nInternational Maritime Organization. (2010a). Instruction to IMO. Retrieved June 16,
\n2010 from the World Wide Web: https:\/\/monkessays.com\/write-my-essay\/imo.org.
\nInternational Maritime Organization. (2010b). Go to sea: A campaign to attract entrants
\nto the shipping industry. Retrieved June 4, 2010 from the World Wide Web:
\nhttps:\/\/monkessays.com\/write-my-essay\/imo.org\/
\nInternational Maritime Organization. (2010, February 2). Programme on the integration
\nof women in the maritime sector: Report on 2009 by the Secretariat (TC 60\/7).
\nLondon: Author.
\nInternational Maritime Organization. (2010, January 18). Strategic plan for the
\norganization for the six-year period 2010 to 2015: Adopted on 26 November 2009,
\nAgenda item 8. (A 26\/Res. 1011) London: Author.
\nInternational Maritime Organization. (2010, March 16). Programme on the integration
\nof women in the maritime sector: Strengthening regional linkages by the
\nSecretariat (TC 60\/7\/1). London: Author.
\nJang H.J. (2006). Opening remarks. International Conference on Job Creation for
\nWomen. Seoul, Korea: Minister of Gender Equality and Family, Republic of Korea.
\nJapan International Transport Institute & The Nippon Foundation. (2010, May). A study
\non the future global supply and demand for seafarers and possible measures to
\nfacilitate stakeholders to secure a quantity of quality seafarers. The problem of the
\nglobal shortage of seafarers and the role of the shipping industry through CRS
\nactivities. London: Japan International Transport Institute & The Nippon
\nFoundation.
\n\u03f5\u03f2
\nJo E. A. (2008, October 28). , (Marine powerful led
\nKorea, but supply shortfall of seafarers). Dong A. Retrieved June 12, 2010 from
\nthe World Wide Web: https:\/\/monkessays.com\/write-my-essay\/donga.com\/fbin\/output?n=200810280046
\nJordan D.K. (2010, Jan. 15). World fleet information: Global fleet statistics for IMUI as
\nat 1st January 2010. Retrieved June 11, 2010 from World Wide Web:
\nhttps:\/\/monkessays.com\/write-my-essay\/iumi.com\/index.cfm?id=7165
\nKim C.H. (2008, October). , !” #$%& ‘()*+ , -..
\n(Korea Maritime University, more important to development welfare than high
\nsalary.) Monthly Maritime Korea. 2008. 10, 60-69
\nKim E.M. (2008, March 17). Mokpo Maritime University, allow a progressive
\nincreasing women student and accepted recommendation of National Human
\nRights Commission of Korea. Newsis. Retrieved June 10, 2010 from the World
\nWide Web:
\nhttp:\/\/news.naver.com\/main\/read.nhn?mode=LSD&mid=sec&sid1=102&oid=003
\n&aid=0002006369
\nKim, K. M. (2008a, Jun.). Ship, there is no someone to talk to. Monthly Maritime Korea.
\nOct. 2008. Vol 1, pp 80-88.
\nKim, K. M. (2008b, October). \/ 01 23, 45 678, 9 :;<7
\n=& (Isolation and loneliness, solve it by on board ship with family). Monthly
\nMaritime Korea. 2008. 10, 96-97
\n\u03f5\u03f3
\nKim, S.J. (1999, December). (The maritime Policy in Rep. of Korea). Monthly
\nMaritime Korea, 1999 (12), 172-181.
\nKim, S.S. (2009, March). A Study on the History of Theoretical Changes of Corporate
\nSocial Responsibility. Korean Corporation Management Association, 16(1), 1-25
\nKitada, M. (2009a). The double roles of the female seafarer. Shipgaz, 5, 17-19.
\nKintada, M. (2009b). Risking marriage and family: Maintaining women sefarers\u2019s
\ngender identities. The 1st SIRC-Nippon fellow maritime conference. Cardiff:
\nSeafarers International Research Centre.
\nKorea Shippowners\u2019 Association. (2009). The statistics of Maritime, 2009. Retrieved
\nJune 13, 2010 from the World Wide Web:
\nLeander T. (2010, May 20). Seafarers in short supply. Lloyd\u2019s List. Retrieved June 2,
\n2010 from the World Wide Web: https:\/\/monkessays.com\/write-my-essay\/lloydslist.com\/ll\/sector\/shipoperations\/article169159.ece?src=Search
\nLee Y.C. (1999). A study on the reasonable protective system for female officers as
\nseafarers. Ocean Industry Research Institute, Korea Maritime, 9, 5-35
\nLee, J.S. (2010). The European Union a corporate social responsibility (CSR): Current
\nrealities and future prospects. Journal of international area studies, 14, 209-237.
\nMin M.S. (2006). Strategies and action plans for creating jobs for women of Korea:
\nKorea\u2019s challenge and strategy for utilization of female work force. International
\nConference on Job Creation for Women. Seoul, Korea: Minister of Gender
\nEquality and Family, Republic of Korea.
\n\u03f5\u03f4
\nMonthly Maritime Korea. . (2008, October). \/ 01 23: >? @
\n\u2018A B%\u20199 CD, \tE, 01 F3. (Solve the seafarer\u2019s problem: first of
\nall, let corporate and government do together for \u2018secure seafarers\u2019 of seafarers
\ninvestment). Monthly Maritime Korea. 2008. 10, 27-46.
\nNieva, M.A.O. (2008, September 30). Filipino women enter lonely, difficult world of
\nseafaring. ABS-cbnNEWS.com. Retrieved July 30, 2010 from the World Wide
\nWeb: https:\/\/monkessays.com\/write-my-essay\/abs-cbnnews.com\/pinoy-migration\/09\/30\/08\/filipino-womenenter-lonely-difficult-world-seafaring.
\nO\u2019Reilly, C.A. and O\u2019Neill, O.A. (2003). Women\u2019s careers: The impact of sex and
\ngender identity on career attainment. Retrieved June 15, 2010 from the World
\nWide Web: http:\/\/gsbapps.stanford.edu\/researchpapers\/library\/RP1775R.pdf
\nSeo Y.S. & Kim J.H. (2005). A preliminary study on the stress perceptiontjtjs and ways
\nto cope with stress for seafarers. Journal of Korean Navigation and Port Research,
\n29(10), 35-42.
\nSong, W.S. (2006). Celebrating remarks. International Conference on Job Creation for
\nWomen. Seoul, Korea: Minister of Gender Equality and Family, Republic of Korea.
\nTansey P. (2010). Women on board-ten years of the IMO Women in Development
\nprogramme (2000). Retrieved June 15, 2010 from the World Wide Web:
\nhttps:\/\/monkessays.com\/write-my-essay\/imo.org\/inforesource\/mainframe.asp?topic (sample nursing essay examples by the best nursing assignment writing service)_id=406&doc_id=1082
\nThe Nautical Institute. (2004, October). Investing in quality- investing in people. Alert:
\nThe International Maritime Human Element Bulletin, 5, 33
\n\u03f5\u03f5
\nThe sea. (2010, July). Conditons and facilities on board are still inadequate: Crew
\nShortage prompts welfare initiatives call. The sea, 206, 1-4.
\nThomas, M. (2004). Get yourself a proper job girlie: Recruitment, retention and women
\nseafarers. Maritime policy & management. United Kingdom: Tayor & Francis
\nGroup press.
\nUnited Nation Conerence on Trade and Development. (2009). Review of maritime
\ntransport 2009. United Nations Conference on trade and development, New York
\nand Geneva. [electronic version] , Retrieved March 16, 2010, from
\nhttps:\/\/monkessays.com\/write-my-essay\/unctad.org\/en\/docs\/rmt2009_en.pdf
\nUnited Nations. (2010, July, 2). UN creates new structure for empowerment of women.
\nRetrieved July 10, 2010 from the World Wide Web:
\nhttps:\/\/monkessays.com\/write-my-essay\/unwomen.org\/2010\/07\/un-creates-new-structure-for-empowerment-ofwomen
\nVerena B.T. (2010, February), Japanese and German approaches and experiences.
\nCorporate social responsibility CSR). Japan-German center Berlin: Berlin Free
\nUniversity, Institute of East Asian Affairs.
\nZhao, M. (2001), \u2018Globalisation and Women\u2019s Employment on Cruise Ships\u2019, Maritime
\nReview 2001 (1st half), pp.77-82, Pacific Press, ISSN: 1356 7542
\n\u03ed\u03ec\u03ec
\nAPPENDIX
\nAppendix 1 Questionnaire
\nA. Profile of the seafarer
\n1. How old are you?
\n2. What is your occupation currently?
\nPSCO VTS operator Seafarer
\nKorea Coast
\nGuard
\nGovernment
\nofficer
\nShip building
\nyard
\nShipping
\ncompany manager
\nShipping
\ncompany junior
\nInspector or
\nsurveyor
\nTeacher
\nor instructor
\nUniversity master
\nor doctor degree
\nstudent
\nLooking for
\nemployment
\nHomemaker other
\n3. What kinds of ship did you serve mostly?
\nContainer Bulk
\ncarrier
\nGas
\ncarrier
\nLNG
\ncarrier
\nOil Tanker Cars
\ncarrier
\nTraining
\nship Others
\n4. What was main reason you work at sea before? (please, tick one box only)
\n\u03ed\u03ec\u03ed
\n1 For the opportunity to see other countries
\n2 To earn more money
\n3 To other special job experience and then transfer to a shore based for
\nin the further
\n4 To examine myself and satisfy my desire for a different environment
\n5 Couldn\u2019t find other job ashore
\n6 Other (please write in )
\n5. How long had you been worked at sea? Or have you been worked at sea?
\nLess than 1 year 1 \u2013 3 years 3 \u2013 5 years
\n5 \u2013 8 years More than 8
\nyears
\n6. What is your last rank (position) when you on board ship?
\nMaster Chief
\nofficer
\n2nd
\nofficer
\n3rd
\nofficer
\nChief
\nengineer
\n1st
\nengineer
\n2nd
\nengineer
\n3rd
\nengineer
\nRadio
\nofficer
\nApparent
\nofficer
\nApparent
\nEngineer
\nB. Experience at sea
\n7. Had you have any of the following problems with your colleagues? (please, tick
\nall box if you have)
\n1 None
\n2 Intentional ignorance
\n3 Bullying
\n4 Sexual discrimination
\n5 Non sexual harassment : verbal or physical
\n6 Abuse of power
\n7 Sexual harassment
\n8 Other (please write in )
\n\u03ed\u03ec\u03ee
\n8. Which of the following difficulty to retain had you ever felt on seafarers\u2019 job?
\nYou can answer in order of priority from no. 1 to no.5.
\n1 Sexual discrimination from male colleagues
\n2 Non-sexual harassment from male colleagues
\n3 Sexual harassment from male colleagues
\n4 Gender inequality; unequal promotion opportunities
\n5 Isolation or loneliness
\n6 Inadequate accommodations for female
\n7 Demands to change to a shore based job from family and\/or fianc\u00e9 ;
\nopposition to a seafarers job
\n8 Relatively low social recognition
\n9 Could not feel pride and confidence in your job
\n10 Traditional social responsibility for women ; marriage, nurturing
\nchildren
\n11 Specialty of job and physical difficulty related to job
\n12 Other (please write in )
\n9. When you had a problem at sea, how did you deal with this?
\n1 Keep it to yourself
\n2 Share it with family and\/or friends
\n3 Share it with colleagues and get support from them
\n4 Report it to your senior (ie, Captain, chief officer, chief engineer, etc)
\n5 Report it to company\u2019s manager immediately
\n6 Report it to Seafarers Union
\n7 Other (please write in )
\n10. To solve those problems and difficulties, what areas do you think should be
\nimproved and developed for woman seafarers? You can answer in order of priority
\nfrom no. 1 to no.3.
\n1 No special requirements
\n2 The effort of improvements by self-motivated
\n3 Seafarer Union\u2019s proactive support
\n4 Korea has a social role and responsibility for females
\n5 Shipping company\u2019s policy and social responsibility
\n6 International organization\u2019s multilateral effort and investment
\n7 Other (please write in )
\n\u03ed\u03ec\u03ef
\n11. According to Question No. 10 \u2018Shipping company\u2019s policy and social
\nresponsibility\u2019, women point of view, what changes are need to provide suficient
\nsupport from shipping company when you are onboard? You can answer in order
\nof priority from no. 1 to no.5.
\n1 No special requirement
\n2 Free contact with family and\/friends through mailing, phone calling,
\nfax etc
\n3 Grantee of medical leave for menstrual period
\n4 Pregnancy policy, grantee of maternity leave and reinstatement
\n5 Encourage policies to work at sea
\n6 Welfare policy
\n7 Adequate accommodation facilities
\n8 Consideration for female group onboard to support one another
\n9 Training and education for seafarers
\n10 Other (please write in )
\n12. Would you like to recommend other woman to do same job as you?
\nYes No I am not sure,
\ndon\u2019t know
\n13. Do you have any further comments?<\/p>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"
Why not women seafarers? Towards a development strategy for the recruitment and retention of women seafarers in cargo ships with particular reference to the Republic\u2026<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":1,"featured_media":0,"comment_status":"open","ping_status":"open","sticky":false,"template":"","format":"standard","meta":{"footnotes":""},"categories":[8827,10099,10540,10536,10892,10538,10539,10537,10891],"tags":[10549,10616,10615,7687,10627,8857,10552,10295,10548,10622,8907],"class_list":["post-132255","post","type-post","status-publish","format-standard","hentry","category-australia-essays","category-buy-essay","category-cheap-essay-writers","category-get-assignments-done","category-page-paper","category-phd-essay-writers","category-research-paper-writing-service-for-any-topic","category-study-bay-essay","category-write-my-assignment-ireland","tag-ai-plagiarism-free-essay-writing-tool","tag-australian-best-tutors","tag-best-trans-tutors","tag-buy-essay-uk","tag-cheap-dissertation-writer","tag-help-with-writing-an-essay","tag-help-write-my-paper-ai-free","tag-homework-for-you","tag-online-essay-writers","tag-phd-essays","tag-write-my-essay-for-me"],"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/www.studyproessays.com\/help\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/132255","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/www.studyproessays.com\/help\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/www.studyproessays.com\/help\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/post"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/www.studyproessays.com\/help\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/1"}],"replies":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/www.studyproessays.com\/help\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/comments?post=132255"}],"version-history":[{"count":1,"href":"https:\/\/www.studyproessays.com\/help\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/132255\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":132422,"href":"https:\/\/www.studyproessays.com\/help\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/132255\/revisions\/132422"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/www.studyproessays.com\/help\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=132255"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"category","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/www.studyproessays.com\/help\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/categories?post=132255"},{"taxonomy":"post_tag","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/www.studyproessays.com\/help\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/tags?post=132255"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}