MULTINATIONAL AND MULTICULTURAL
\nSEAFARERS AND MET STUDENTS: A SOCIOCULTURAL STUDY FOR IMPROVING
\nMARITIME SAFETY AND THE EDUCATION OF
\nSEAFARERS<\/p>\n
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
\nBeing one of the World Maritime University\u2019s students was one of what I had
\ndreamed of. When the dream came true, I promised to myself and those who
\nsupported me that I would not make them disappointed. The challenges, hard times
\nand joyful times have been the romance of life in this world-class university. I could
\nnot pass those times without supports. Thanks to The Almighty Allah who always
\ngives me His bless with health and spirit. Without His permit, I would never be in
\nMalm\u00f6. I would like to express my great sincere to The Nippon Foundation who
\nprovide the donor through Sasakawa Fellowship program to support my study at
\nWorld Maritime University (WMU).
\nI extend my appreciation to my institution, Merchant Marine Polytechnics of
\nMakassar (PIP Makassar), the Indonesian Ministry of Transportation\u2019s Education
\nand Training Agency and Maritime Education and Training Center, as the Maritime
\nAdministration, who nominated and granted me to attend the study at WMU.
\nMy great appreciation is also passed on to those at WMU : Professor Takeshi
\nNakazawa, the head of MET specialization, for motivating me; Professor Jan Horck,
\nas the Supervisor of my dissertation, for giving the valuable advices, corrections,
\nsuggestions and materials to support my dissertation; Mr. Clive Cole as my English
\nlanguage supervisor; all WMU professors and lectures that are not mentioned in this
\npaper; all other WMU staff and librarians; and all my colleagues and respondents
\nwho have given the great support for the completion of this dissertation.
\nI am also grateful to those onboard various ships as the respondents for the great
\ncontribution, especially under Kustvaartbedrijf Moerman BV company. They have
\nhappy live onboard although the crews are of different nationalities. The last and the
\ngreatest, my beloved husband Susetyo Hari Mardhiko, my son Satrio Hanif Tanribali
\nSusetyo and my mother Dinar Sehu. Thanks for always giving me the spirit and
\nmotivation to keep me concentrate on my study and feel comfortable when I\u2019m
\naway. May Allah bless you all.
\niv
\nABSTRACT
\nTitle of Dissertation : Multinational and Multicultural Seafarers and MET
\nStudents: A Socio-cultural Study For Improving
\nMaritime Safety and the Education of Seafarers.
\nDegree : Master of Science
\nThe declining number of seafarers from major ship owner countries (EU, USA,
\nJapan, etc) has been one of the reasons which pushed the ship owners and
\nemployers to man their ships with crews from various nationalities. The tendency to
\nemploy multinational crews is not without any problem. The consequences for both
\nthe employers and the crews, such as miscommunication, communication
\nconstraints, alienation and discrimination due to race, culture and religion
\ndifferences, can not be avoided. Those consequences may lead to serious safety
\nrisks on board when not being overcome. This dissertation will review the tendency
\nof employing multinational\/multicultural crews, as well as the cultural background
\nand characteristics which are divided into two major parts, i.e. Western and Eastern.
\nResearch and investigation results on the multicultural crewing are analyzed and
\nexamined and literatures are viewed to assess the effectiveness and problems
\nwhich may arise from the mixed-crews employment, as well as the root causes of
\nthe problem. The use and effectiveness of maritime English as maritime common
\nlanguage is evaluated.
\nThe concluding chapter provides some recommendations and proposals concerning
\nwith the need of various culture education\/familiarization for seafarers and cadets.
\nThis may benefit the seafarers and employers themselves as the crews will be more
\nadaptive when assigned to the ships with mixed nationality crews. Thence, the
\ncooperation and working environment among crew will be better without one being
\nalienated by the others. This is for one purpose: safety.
\nKey words : Multicultural seafarers, Maritime safety, Human element, Sociocultural study, Technical and soft skills, Education and training.
\nv
\nTABLE OF CONTENTS
\nPage
\nDeclaration ii
\nAcknowledgement iii
\nAbstract iv
\nTable of Contents v
\nList of Figures viii
\nList of Tables x
\nList of Abbreviations xi
\nChapter 1 Introduction 1
\n1.1 Aim and objectives 2
\n1.2 Background of a global maritime dilemma 2
\n1.3 Statement of the problems 3
\n1.4 The significance of the study 4
\n1.5 Research questions 4
\n1.6 Author\u2019s pre-comprehension 4
\n1.7 Comprehensive research summary 5
\n1.8 Dissertation outline 6
\nChapter 2 Multicultural Crews \u2013 Cultural Diversity 8
\n2.1 Global culture 8
\n2.2 Eastern and Western cultures 10
\n2.3 Yin and Yang philosophy: The concept of harmony 12
\n2.4 A global maritime dilemma in multinational and multicultural crews 13
\n2.5 Shipping challenges with multinational crews 17
\n2.6 Chapter conclusion 19
\nChapter 3 A Socio-cultural Study For Improving Maritime Safety 21
\n3.1 The Human element 22
\n3.1.1 Communication skills 25
\n3.1.2 Human relationships and social interactions 28
\n3.1.3 Behaviour 29
\nvi
\n3.1.4 Cultural intelligence 29
\n3.1.5 Leadership 31
\n3.2 Culture shock 33
\n3.3 Adaptation and adjustment 35
\n3.4 Relevance with a reference to maritime safety 36
\n3.5 Chapter conclusion 37
\nChapter 4 Research Methodology 39
\n4.1 Qualitative and quantitative methods 39
\n4.2 Research structure 40
\n4.3 The questionnaire 41
\n4.4 The conversation 42
\nChapter 5 Survey Findings 43
\n5.1 Respondent demography 43
\n5.2 Respondents\u2019 professional backgrounds 44
\n5.3 Survey findings 45
\n5.3.1 Seafarers 45
\n5.3.2 Non-seafarers 50
\n5.4 Sample from the respondents answers 54
\n5.5 Chapter conclusion 59
\nChapter 6 Conclusions and Recommendations 61
\n6.1 Conclusion 61
\n6.2 Study recommendations 64
\nChapter 7 Discussion 66
\n7.1 Additional remarks 66
\n7.2 Further research 68
\n7.3 Weaknesses of the current study 68
\nReferences 70
\nAppendices 78
\nAppendix A Differences between Westerners and Asians 78
\nAppendix B Culture shock adaptation and adjustment 80
\nAppendix C Request letter to the respondents 81
\nAppendix D List of respondents that returned questionnaires 82
\nAppendix E Conversation topic (sample nursing essay examples by the best nursing assignment writing service)s (Seafarers) 84
\nvii
\nAppendix F Questionnaire (Seafarers) 85
\nAppendix G Questionnaire (Non-seafarers) 87
\nAppendix H Summary of respondents (Seafarers) 89
\nAppendix I Summary of respondents (Non-seafarers) 92
\nviii
\nLIST OF FIGURES
\nPage
\nFigure 1 WMU International Day\u2019s event, 2010 9
\nFigure 2 Yin and Yang symbol 13
\nFigure 3 Various hazards 16
\nFigure 4 World fleet developments 17
\nFigure 5 A ten-year trend of accidents attributed to human error 22
\nFigure 6 Main reasons of casualties 23
\nFigure 7 Diagram of culture shock 33
\nFigure 8 Research structure 40
\nFigure 9 Respondents\u2019 demography 43
\nFigure 10 Professional background 44
\nFigure 11 Seafarers that have sailed with multinational crews 45
\nFigure 12 Did your company require sufficient English language both written
\nand spoken of you?
\n46
\nFigure 13 What language did you use to communicate onboard ship? 46
\nFigure 14 Do you find any differences between crew members from Western
\nand Eastern cultures?
\n46
\nFigure 15 What source of differences did you find? 46
\nFigure 16 Did you have experience constraints\/problems work with mixedcrews?
\n47
\nFigure 17 Constrains\/problems with mixed-crews onboard ship 47
\nFigure 18 Did you socialize with other mixed-crews after duty? 47
\nFigure 19 Are Human relations and social interactions important? 47
\nFigure 20 Is the socio-cultural approach important in the multinational
\nenvironment onboard ships?
\n48
\nFigure 21 Do you think socio-cultural approach can harmonize the working
\nenvironment?
\n48
\nix
\nFigure 22 Respondent\u2019s view on Socio-cultural education and if it helps
\nseafarers dealing with mixed-crews on board ship.
\n49
\nFigure 23 Should the socio-culture subject be included in the curriculum? 50
\nFigure 24 Should IMO recommend a publication (guideline similar with Model
\nCourses 3.17 or the SMCP) related to socio-cultural subject.
\n50
\nFigure 25 Multinational and multicultural is a challenge in the maritime
\nindustry.
\n51
\nFigure 26 Is it easy to adapt and to adjust to the multinational and multicultural
\nenvironment?
\n51
\nFigure 27 Did you have any experience of culture shock? 51
\nFigure 28 What sources of constraints\/problems did you find? 51
\nFigure 29 Human relations and social interactions are needed. 52
\nFigure 30 Cultural intelligence is vital in the multinational & multicultural
\nenvironment.
\n52
\nFigure 31 Do you think the socio-cultural approach improves the human
\nelement and maritime safety?
\n53
\nFigure 32 Is socio-cultural education necessary to be provided in maritime
\ninstitutions?
\n53
\nFigure 33 Your government (Maritime Administration) should take initiative to
\nprovide practical study\/curriculum for improving cultural awareness
\n(social skills) and propose it to IMO when possible.
\n53
\nx
\nLIST OF TABLES
\nPage
\nTable 1 Differences between Western and Asian: Values, Communication
\nstyles and Organizational patterns.
\n11
\nTable 2 Number of EU and non-EU seafarers onboard EU registered
\nships.
\n18
\nTable 3 Maritime accidents due to cultural and language problems. 24
\nxi
\nLIST OF ABREVIATIONS
\nEU : European Union
\nIAMU : International Association of Maritime Universities
\nIMLA : International Maritime Lecturers Association
\nIMO : International Maritime Organization
\nISM : International Safety Management
\nITF : International Trade Federation
\nMET : Maritime Education Institution
\nOECD : Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development
\nSMCP : Standard Maritime Communication Phrases
\nSMNV : Standard Marine Navigational Vocabulary
\nSOLAS : Safety of Life at Sea
\nSTCW : Standard Training Certification and Watch keeping
\nUK : United Kingdom
\nUSA : United states of America
\nWMU : World Maritime University
\n1
\nCHAPTER 1
\nINTRODUCTION
\n\u201cCulture is a complex system of interrelated parts that must be understood
\nholistically.\u201d
\n(Harris et al., 2007, p. 10)
\nNowadays, the shipping industry has developed rapidly because of advanced
\ntechnology and human needs, the involved parties including ship owners and
\nMaritime Education and Training (MET) institutions. In this respect, the international
\nshipping fleet is challenged to improve maritime safety; specifically the human
\nelement is a major priority. The human factor and maritime safety are two
\ninterrelated elements in shipping. These factors render human behavior and
\nperformance as potential leading components in maritime safety. Moreover, it must
\nbe noted that the marine industry should make the human element a key concern.
\nIMO has put the human factor as a great concern. This is shown by the numerous
\nactions and regulations made by IMO specifically for this matter (de Oses et al.,
\n2002).
\nA major concern of the shipping industry tends to focus on multinational seafarers,
\nbecause several companies man their fleets with cross-cultural crews. The
\nmerchant fleet is an international workplace and has a long tradition sailing with
\ncrews that represent many different nationalities; two thirds of the world merchant
\nmarine vessels have crews that are multinational and multilingual (Horck, 2005).
\n2
\nConsequently, international shipping demands seafarers to have competence not
\nonly in technical skills, but also non-technical skills, soft skills. With multinational
\nworking conditions aboard ships, culturally mixed-crews have to adapt and
\ncooperate both socially and professionally. Since most accidents and incidents are
\ncaused by human error nowadays, this concern is important. Therefore, quality
\nseafaring has been taken seriously by IMO as is the existence of seafarers. This has
\nbeen emphasized by the Secretary General of IMO, Eftimious E. Mitropoulos in his
\nstatement to the world that 2010 is the Year of Seafarer (IMO Council, 2009).
\n1.1 Aim and objectives
\nThe aim of this dissertation is to make readers (in particular the maritime society)
\nrealize and become aware of the importance of a socio-cultural education in
\nmultinational shipping in order to minimize the safety risks. The discussions mainly
\nfocus on the socio-cultural approach in the light of the human element (human
\nfactor). The objectives of current dissertation are to:
\n1. Describe the multicultural manning phenomenon in maritime shipping nowadays.
\n2. Identify and discuss the main problems\/constraints of culture shock within
\nmixed-crews onboard ship.
\n3. Discuss and analyze the role of the socio-cultural approach in multinational and
\nmulticultural shipping in order to improve maritime safety.
\n4. Discuss and analyze the role of concerned parties, such as MET institutions,
\nMaritime administrations and IMO, in the implementation of a socio-cultural
\nstudy of seafarers.
\n5. Formulate recommendation(s) related to socio-cultural training in maritime
\ninstitutions and shipping\/manning companies.
\n1.2 Background of a global maritime dilemma
\nThe growth of the international shipping fleet contributes to the employment of
\nseafarers from different countries to work both at sea and\/or ashore. In particular,
\nthe number of seafarers has declined in the European Union (EU) since the early
\n3
\n1980s. Regarding this phenomenon, the employment of multinational seafarers has
\nbecome a problem for the ship owners.
\nA future problem of scarcity of nationals going to sea is the possible impact of the
\nrecruitment of foreigners to work in the head offices of the shipping industry. This
\nbecomes a new challenge as it is not an easy task for the owners and the shipping
\ncompanies to recruit crews from different nationalities. It will grow unless there is a
\nsustainable way on how to work together and make a good cooperation with less
\nprejudice and stereotyping in this multicultural-setting (Horck, 2005). Regarding this,
\nthe human element should be put as the major priority to harmonize the working
\nconditions in the multicultural and multilingual environments. Wherever they are
\nfrom, they should work together professionally and socially, and this is for safety
\nreasons. Shipping companies (Horck, 2004). Besides the multinational crewing
\ndilemma, another burden is the decrease in the number of seafarers. In fact, this
\nprofession is not a lifelong career. It is considered that being a seafarer, is presently
\nno longer attractive. Although the shipping industry is growing, enough seafarers are
\nnot available to meet the requirements of the industry.
\nThe challenges of multinational crews in shipping needs to be realized by the
\nconcerned parties including MET institutions. In particular, there is no formal
\neducation provided concerning the multicultural life of seafarers. The concept of
\nmulticultural study is one part of the human element which needs to be formulated.
\nHowever, there are still pros and cons that need to be discussed. Whatever the pros
\nand cons are, multicultural study is basically aimed to fulfill the shipping industry\u2019s
\nexpectation of quality shipping and quality crews.
\n1.3 Statement of the problems
\nThe challenges concerning multinational and multicultural seafarers in global
\nshipping are highlighted in discussions. Moreover, the problems are emphasized in
\nthis dissertation, as follows:
\n\uf0b7 Communication problems.
\n\uf0b7 Diversity challenge (multicultural challenge).
\n\uf0b7 Reducing interest of a seafaring career.
\n4
\n\uf0b7 Cultural education challenges in MET institutions and in shipping companies.
\n1.4 The significance of the study
\nThe essence of this study is to seek the seafarer\u2019s overall performance in ship
\nmanning within the multicultural and multilingual environment. The significance of
\nthis study emphasizes the useful socio-cultural approach in the maritime field in
\ndealing with the multicultural crew\u2019s environment onboard, so that they work in
\nharmony to improve safety. The matter of the human element is also highlighted in
\nthis study. In relation to humans, socio-cultural training can give advantages for
\nseafarers in improving cross-cultural awareness, communication skills and good
\nleadership in multinational shipping. In applying this course, related parties need to
\nwork together by issuing a publication (such as a guideline) in order to realize a
\nsocio-cultural education and its curriculum design in MET institutions. By providing
\nsuch a kind of education for cadets\/seafarers, at least incidents and accidents
\ncaused by communication and cultural problems (human errors) can be prevented.
\n1.5 Research questions
\nSeveral concepts and ideas to be observed in relation with multinational and
\nmulticultural seafarers in the context of socio-cultural approach are as follow:
\n1. What are the main challenges related to multinational crews onboard ships?
\n2. Is a socio-cultural approach needed in order to improve safety in multinational
\nshipping?
\n3. Why is the socio-cultural approach important in multinational shipping?
\n4. Should maritime institutions conduct a socio-cultural course?
\n5. Should IMO recommend a publication (a guideline similar to Model Course 3.17;
\nor the SMCP) related to the socio-cultural subject?
\n1.6 Author\u2019s pre-comprehension
\nA good dissertation is very much dependent on how the researcher can support the
\nresearch. The author has collected data from questionnaires and conversations
\nbefore a textual analysis. The author\u2019s academic background together with gender
\n5
\nhas a significant importance for the reader to evaluate the fruitfulness of the
\nresearch report (Horck, 2006). The relevance of an author\u2019s professionalism, natural
\nattitude and her historical context are therefore a huge concern for the reader. In this
\ncase, the author\u2019s empathy to the samples has developed her understanding and
\neffort in making the observations. The motivation and concern with the humans and
\nsocio-cultural aspects within the research are relevant to the author\u2019s interest,
\neducational background and career at the MET institution in Indonesia. Therefore,
\nthe author believes that from a socio-cultural point-of-view, seafarers can be more
\nadaptive to cultural diversities and to customize themselves within differences.
\nThe observation emphasizes the human element in multinational shipping. After
\nbeing educated at Sun Moon University in South Korea, the author understands the
\nimportance of multinational environments, not only academically, but also socially.
\nCommunication skills, social relationships and good cooperation among students
\nand civil societies are very important to be taken into consideration in human
\nrelationships. Her knowledge in the grade transcripts from Sun Moon University
\nincludes international and Korean Cultures and Confucianism. The study was
\ncompleted in one year. Having studied social science and human studies at
\nHasanuddin University, Indonesia, this has made her understand the socio-cultural
\naspects of the human being. In 2009 to 2010, the author studied at World Maritime
\nUniversity in Malm\u00f6, Sweden in the specialization Maritime Education and Training
\n(MET). This led her to conduct the observation in diversity which has strong
\nrelevance with the multinational and multicultural issues of seafarers and nonseafarers. The difference can only be seen from the physical atmosphere: on land
\nand the rest at sea, as a workplace. The author believes that self-learning is very
\nmuch more effective to face real situations especially in diverse environments.
\n1.7 Comprehensive research summary
\nDue to the rapid development in shipping industry, all the maritime concerned
\nparties are challenged to improve maritime safety, specifically to the human element
\nas the major priority. The human factor and maritime safety are two interrelated
\nelements in shipping. The international shipping fleet is growing and therefore it
\nrequires more employment of multicultural crews. Seafarers are required to have
\nboth technical and soft skills\/competences. Concerning this, MET institutions are
\n6
\nchallenged with providing the seafarers with both skills. As there is still no particular
\nmodel course for the soft skills, MET is encouraged to run such courses on a
\nproactive base. Beside the challenges of multinational and multicultural crewing, the
\ndecreasing number of seafarers shows that seafaring presently is not an attractive
\nprofession. This has become a dilemma in commercial shipping.
\n1.8 Dissertation outline
\nThis dissertation describes and analyzes the phenomenon of multicultural crew
\nemployment, its benefits and disadvantages, the importance of the socio-cultural
\naspect in multinational and multicultural shipping as well as proposing the solutions
\nconcerning the matter discussed. The content is eight chapters, as follows:
\nChapter 1, Introduction: identifies the aim and objectives of the study being to
\nimprove the seafarer\u2019s adaptive capability to multinational and multicultural
\nsituations, and describes the background of the global maritime dilemma. This
\nchapter also affirms the statement of the problems, the significance of the study and
\nobservations. The author\u2019s pre-comprehension and outline are also presented in this
\nchapter.
\nChapter 2, Multicultural crews-a cultural diversity: describes in general global culture
\nand the Yin and Yang philosophy as the concept of harmony, as well as presenting
\nthe differences between Western and Eastern cultures. This chapter also affirms the
\nglobal maritime dilemma of multinational crews that this has become a challenge in
\nglobal shipping.
\nChapter 3, A Socio-cultural study improving maritime Safety: analyses and
\ndiscusses several aspects related to the human element, such as: communication
\nskills, human relationships and social interactions, behavior, cultural intelligence and
\nleadership. The impact of a global culture is apparent in the presence of culture
\nshock. This can be solved by adaptation and adjustment, and is supported by
\nreference to maritime safety.
\nChapter 4, Research methodology: presents the qualitative and quantitative
\napproaches that are used in survey data and it affirms the structure of the research.
\nThe methods of questionnaires and conversations are prescribed in this chapter.
\n7
\nChapter 5, Survey findings: presents the demography and professional description
\nof the respondents. The shipping challenges caused by cross-cultural seafarers
\nassigned in chapter three are identified and analyzed. Here, survey findings focus
\non identifying and analyzing the data measurement taken from seafarers and nonseafarers respondents. This chapter also presents opinions and suggestions from
\nconversations that were incorporated in the topic (sample nursing essay examples by the best nursing assignment writing service) sample from the respondents\u2019
\nanswers.
\nChapter 6, Conclusion and recommendations: concludes the findings with the
\nauthor\u2019s own part of the chapter and formulates a few recommendations on the
\nissues discussed.
\nChapter 7, Discussion: discusses several remarks that are not necessarily related to
\nthe sample but are needed to make the picture complete. This chapter also
\nproposes further research as well as presenting weaknesses of the current study.
\nThe author is de facto part of the study because of the conversations.
\n8
\nCHAPTER 2
\nMULTICULTURAL CREWS – CULTURAL DIVERSITY
\n\u201cBroadly, speaking, Western society strives to find and prove “the truth”, while
\nEastern society accepts the truth as given and is more interested in finding the
\nbalance. Westerners put more stock in individual rights; Easterners in social
\nresponsibly\u201d.
\n(Bibikova et al., 2001)
\n2.1 Global culture
\nThe root of the word culture is the Latin colere which means to cultivate. It is defined
\nas a whole that makes up every human being on earth (Wikipedia, 2010). The
\ncharacteristics of everyday existence (as a diversion of a way of life) are shared by
\npeople in a place or in a time with customary beliefs, social forms, and material traits
\nof an ethnic and social group. Moreover, culture is concerned with the senses of fine
\narts, humanities and the broad aspects of science as distinguished from vocational
\nand technical skills (Merriam-webmaster, 2010). Culture in general is concerned
\nwith beliefs and values on the basis of which people interpret experiences and
\nbehave; individually and in groups. Broadly and simply: culture refers to a group or
\ncommunity with whom you share common experiences that shape the way you
\nunderstand the world (Bibikova et al., 2001).
\nWith globalization, the author refers to the compression of the world and the
\nintensification of its consciousness as a whole. In thought and action, it makes the
\nworld a single place. What it means to live in this place, and how it must be ordered,
\nis a universal question. Such questions receive different answers from individuals
\nand societies that define their position in relation to both the system of societies and
\n9
\nthe shared properties of humankind from very different perspectives (Robertson,
\n1992).<\/p>\n
Figure 1.WMU International Day\u2019s event, 2010 (Author\u2019s collection).
\nFigure 1 shows the global culture at World Maritime University. The photo is from
\nThe International Day celebration in 2010 where many students from different
\nnationalities exhibit their different cultures. To meet many different cultures enriches
\ndiversity thinking and emphasizes the spirit of shoulder to shoulder. It strengthens
\nthe sustainability of maritime activities.
\nEvery society has its main culture and its subcultures. The major culture represents
\nthe country and symbolizes its society, personality and way of life. In most advanced
\nnations, the main culture tends to be open and easily comprehensible, to both its
\nown members and visitors alike (Huer, 2009). However, there are sometimes found
\narguments and disagreements of one culture that do not fit another new culture.
\n\u201cThe confrontation of their world-views means that globalization involves
\ncomparative interaction of different forms of life\u201d (Robertson, 1992, p.27). Similarly, it
\nis complex to make an exact definition towards an international or global culture.
\nGlobal culture means people sharing values, ideas, beliefs, customs, traditions and
\nnorms. Through the internet and mass media become available sources of culture
\ntransformation (Rehman, 2007).
\n10
\n2.2 Eastern and Western cultures
\nEastern and Western cultures are reflected in the many different characteristics of
\npeople. Since they consist of multinational ships, then the differences of the
\nconceptual way of thinking, behavior, attitude of mariners as human being are much
\ninfluenced by the root cultures where they are from, namely West and East. In
\ncommon sense, Western society strives to find and prove the truth, while Eastern
\nsociety accepts the truth as given and is more interested in finding the balance.
\nWesterners put more stock in individual rights whilst Easterners in social responsibly
\n(Bibikova et al., 2001).
\nThe world\u2019s cultures are divided into two major parts. The majority are the Western
\nand Eastern cultures. The classification of West and East is made primarily
\naccording to the location of the societies on earth and the skin color of the people of
\nthese societies. The West refers mostly to the part where people live in the continent
\nfrom Greece to the North-West, as the ancient Greeks (and Romans) produced
\nmajor civilizations, famous for their contributions to philosophy, literature, fine art
\nand government. The people living in that area are light skin people. The continent
\nis known as Europe. The name Europe is perhaps derived from Europa, the
\ndaughter of Phoenix in Greek mythology, or possibly from Ereb, a Phoenician word
\nfor sunset (Wikipedia, 2010). Due to the expansion of colonization by the
\nEuropeans, the West expanded and was referred to not only as Europe, but also
\nAmerica and Australasia, even though within Europe itself there is Western and
\nEastern Europe which also have significant differences in culture.
\nWith East the author refers to the Asian countries: China, Japan, India and the
\nArabic world. Although the cultures are different among these countries, all of them
\nare well-known for politeness. The Eastern philosophy is a group of philosophies
\nand religions that originated in India, China, Japan, Southeast Asia, and Arabic
\ncountries. Christianity also originates from Asia geographically, but culturally it is
\nconsidered to be a Western religion and originates from the Mediterranean region
\n(Bibikova et al., 2001).
\n11
\nTable 1. Differences between Western and Asian: Values, Communication styles
\nand Organizational patterns
\nWestern cultural views Asian cultural views
\nValues
\nDemocracy Hierarchy
\nEquality Inequality
\nSelf determination Fatalism
\nIndividualism Collectivism
\nHuman rights Acceptance of Status
\nEquality for Women Male dominance
\nSocial mobility Establish social class
\nStatues through Achievement Status through British and Wealth
\nFacts and Figures Relationships
\nSocial justice Power structures
\nNew solutions Good precedents
\nVigor Wisdom
\nLinear time Cycle time
\nResult orientation Harmony orientation
\nCommunication styles
\nDirect Indirect
\nBlunt Diplomatic
\nPolite Very courteous
\nTalkative Reserved
\nExtrovert Introvert
\nPersuasive Recommending
\nMedium \u2013 strong eye contact Weak eye contact
\nLinear active Reactive
\nUnambiguous Ambiguous
\nDecisive Cautious
\nProblem solving Accepting the situation
\nInterrupt Does not interrupt
\nHalf listen Listen carefully
\nQuick to deal Courtship dance
\nConcentrates on power Concentrates on Agreed agenda
\nOrganizational patterns
\nIndividual as a unit Company and society as a unit
\nPromotion by achievement Promotion by age and seniority
\nHorizontal and matrix structures Vertical structures
\nProfit orientation Market share priority
\nContracts as binding Contracts as negotiable
\nDecision by competent individuals Decision by consensus
\nSpecialization Job rotation
\nProfessional Mobility Fixed Loyalty
\n(Source: Lewis, 2003)
\nTable 1 identifies the different characteristics of Western and Asian cultures. There
\nare many things that work differently in their respective homelands. The language,
\n12
\nthe social system, the way of thinking and beliefs are amongst the differences which
\nare found to be strange. Consequently, there can be a possibility to be alienated
\nwhen people are reluctant to make relationships and cooperation within the crosscultural environment (Horck, 2008). For instance, when a European (white-skinned)
\ntourist visits a local tribe in the heart of West Papua in Indonesia, he\/she will
\nsometimes be regarded as a guest-star. He\/she may have a special welcome from
\nthe tribe leader. However, he\/she should follow and respect the tradition of the tribe
\nwhen a being welcomed. The procedure most probably will not be in the same way
\nas at home.
\nThe same thing might happen when an Indonesian visits a European country. When
\ndining, Indonesians hold the spoon in the right hand and the fork in the left hand.
\nThey eat with the spoon in the right hand. In Indonesia, to eat with left hand is not
\npolite. However, in most European countries, dining is a special occasion. Table
\nmanners are also to be respected. It is normal in Europe to use the knife in the right
\nhand and the fork in the left hand. The differences between Western and Asian
\ncultures are presented in Appendix A.
\n2.3 Yin and Yang philosophy: The concept of harmony
\nIn general, the world consists of two major pairs which oppose one another. The
\ngreat common things such as heaven and earth, masculine and feminine, red and
\nblue, hard and soft, success and fail have existed since the world and human beings
\nwere created. There is a famous philosophy from China which represents the pair in
\nlife. Chinese affirmed the symbol of harmony as Yin and Yang (Figure 2). Some
\npeople see the symbol as two fishes swimming head to tail. In the early 4th century
\nBC the Chinese philosophers wrote about Yin and Yang which literally refers to the
\ndark and sunlit sides of a hill. They also refer to the opposite and complementary
\nforces.
\nFigure 2 represents the philosophy of balance and harmony. Yin is associated with
\neverything dark, moist, receptive, earthy and female whereas Yang is bright, dry,
\nactive, heavenly, and male. According to the spiritual philosophy of the Tzu and
\nChing, the created universe carries the Yin at its back and the Yang in front; through
\nthe union of the pervading principles it reaches harmony. The great one produces
\n13
\nthe two poles Earth and Heaven, which in turn gives rise to the energies of the dark
\nYin and the light Yang. These two energies then transform themselves, one rising
\ndownwards, and the other descending upwards (Magno, 2004).
\nFigure 2. Yin and Yang symbol1
\nIn relation with human beings, the universal philosophy of Yin and Yang contributes
\ngreat energy for people living in the world. It is the way of how to create the balance
\nof life within the environment. It symbolizes cooperation with all the various things,
\ndifferent people from different nation, cultural background, belief, education, etc. In
\nthis philosophy, they find they can work and live together comfortably and make
\ngood relationship with others as one unity in diversity. The philosophy of Yin and
\nYang was believed to combine various proportions and to produce different objects
\nin the universe. Although Yin and Yang could be viewed as opposites, however they
\nare really complementary pairs. Life mishaps and problems are caused not by
\nopposing forces, but by disharmony or imbalances in the environment. Balance is an
\nessential part of harmony (Maidment, 1998).
\n2.4 A global maritime dilemma in multinational and multicultural crews
\nA ship in international trade is a site where people (the crews) are living in the same
\nplace for a certain period of time. Most of the ships serving in international trade are
\nmanned not only by a single nationality, but tend to be more complex. Sixty percent
\nof the world\u2019s merchant fleet is now staffed by multinational crews. Some of them
\nwork out of ports not in their own homeland from different parts of the world with<\/p>\n
1
\nFigure in this page retrieved from source: \u201cYin and Yang: Understanding the Chinese
\nphilosophy of opposites and how to apply it to your everyday life\u201d (Palmer, 2007).
\n14
\ncrew members of different ranks by network shipping agencies (ITF, 2002). Working
\nwith people from various nationalities, it is a very attractive to observe how things
\nwork within a small population of people who have different languages, different
\ntraditions and different religions living in one restricted place.
\nIn the past and still today, there are differences between Eastern and Western
\npeople in the case of employment terms and conditions. Many recruiters (crew
\nmanagers) prefer senior officers from OECD and East European countries and
\njunior officers and ratings from the Far-East, Southern Asia and Middle East
\n(Kahveci et al., 2009). However, the author believes that with the advancement of
\ntechnology, exchange of information can be established in an easier manner; so
\nthat, the boundaries between West and East are not an obvious limit anymore.
\nThe migration from East to West and vice versa contributes to a cultural mixture and
\nintegration. However, most Eastern people can not leave their identities and
\ncharacteristics brought by the blood line of their ethnic backgrounds. Even though
\nmigration does happen, in the new world, immigrants tend to live in a society where
\nmost people come from the same ethnic area. Chinatown in America\/Europe, some
\nAfro-American neighborhoods in United States, Arabian communities in Sweden are
\nsome examples of this. This migration is also what occurs on board ships with
\nmultinational crews. When a foreign crew is assigned to serve on a ship with a
\ncertain flag\/nationality, it can be said that the crewmember has temporarily migrated
\nfrom his\/her home country to the country of the ship, which is represented by the
\nship itself which is also a sub culture. On board ship, the crew must follow the rules
\nand regulations which may be applied by the ship\u2019s flag state (government). A crew
\nis hired temporarily to work and live in the \u201ccountry\u201d (the ship) until his\/her
\nemployment contract is terminated.
\nDiversified cultures promote good opportunities for seafarers and ship owners. Not
\nonly in the economic perspective, but also the exploration of knowledge and
\nexperiences from mixed-crews can give certain advantages. \u201cDifferent culture
\npractice and forms were the topic (sample nursing essay examples by the best nursing assignment writing service) of interest for seafarers who often discussed and
\nexplored these differences with one to another; they can operate extremely
\nsuccessful both company and seafarers\u201d (Kahveci et al., 2002, p. ii). Furthermore,
\n15
\nthe some benefits of manning the ship with multinational crew members can be
\nrecognized, as follows:
\n\uf0b7 Crewmembers from different cultures may tend to use different intellectual
\nprocesses and patterns, providing a diverse range of responses and input.
\n\uf0b7 By ensuring a broad mixture of nationalities, the captain\u2019s authority is unlikely to
\nbe challenged by strong national groupings.
\n\uf0b7 By working in a multicultural crew, each member\u2019s knowledge of the world will
\nbe improved. This may be of advantage to the company later, if a seafarer
\ntransfers to a shore-based job where such knowledge can translate directly into
\na business advantage.
\n\uf0b7 Recruiting seafarers from developing countries often provides support to those
\ncountries from remittances sent home to families. The impact on the economy
\ncan improve maritime training in those countries, which in turn again improves
\nthe candidates from which ship owners may recruit (Horck, 2005, pp. 16-17).
\nMultinational seafarers\u2019 employment in global shipping is a dynamic discussion
\nsince its recruitment has increased because for economic reasons. Ship owners and
\nshipping companies search for seafarers to man their ships in low-cost crewing
\ncountries (Horck, 2006). Mixed-crews from developing countries are cheap (Kahveci
\net al., 2002). Consequently, multinational officers and ratings give an advantage to
\nthe world shipping fleet from an economic point-of-view.
\nBesides benefits, the disadvantages of recruiting multinational seafarers are
\naffected, however. Multicultural crews have become a critical issue in the
\ndevelopment of ship manning (Thoung, 2007). The shipping companies do not take
\nfull advantage of this situation and even find problems. Many owners have
\ndifficulties in managing crews from different nationalities. Moreover, several remarks
\non multicultural crews have been made (Kahveci et al., 1992), as follows:
\n\uf0b7 Language was found to be a critical issue for multinational crews. The use of
\nmother tongue rather than a common language (English) fostered suspicion
\namongst multilingual crews so that this could result in frustration.
\n16
\n\uf0b7 Faith was a fundamental part of many seafarers\u2019 lives. Some seafarers regretted
\nthat only Western religious holidays were marked aboard many vessels.
\n\uf0b7 Stereotyping is apparently diminished with contact. Thus, seafarers were less
\nlikely to have stereotyped understandings with whom they had sailed regularly
\nand were more likely to generalize about national groups with whom they had
\nlittle contact (SIRC, 2002, pp. i-ii).
\nBesides the multinational crewing dilemma, another burden is the decrease in the
\nnumber of seafarers. In fact, this profession is not a lifelong career. It is considered
\nby many that being a seafarer is presently no longer attractive. Although the
\nshipping industry is growing, enough seafarers are not available to meet the
\nrequirements of the industry, especially in the near future.
\nFigure 3. Various hazards (Source: Marinebuzz, 2008).
\nVarious hazards are the main reasons why the young generation is not particularly
\nmotivated to choose seafaring career. In global shipping there are hazardous
\nproblems, such as: professional hazard, personal hazard, social hazard and legal
\nhazard as shown in Figure 3. The various hazards are explained as follows:
\n\uf0b7 Professional hazards. Very few seafarers can only take up shipping as their life
\ntime profession. At the end of their life, they realize that no significant
\nachievements were made.
\n17
\n\uf0b7 Personal hazards. Seafarers are not lucky to remain with their family members
\nthroughout their career. Seafarers cannot be with other family members. They
\nhave to forget about birthdays, Christmas and any other social and family
\nevents.
\n\uf0b7 Social hazards. Many seafarers are not able to mix in a heterogeneous society
\nas they interact with a limited member of people throughout their career.
\n\uf0b7 Legal hazards. For example: Pollution. If a ship pollutes the sea due to
\nwhatsoever reasons, the ship\u2019s crew including the captain of the ship may have
\nto face legal actions (Marinebuzz, 2008).
\nThe remarks above obviously have an effect on the reduced number of seafarers.
\n\u201cThere is a general worry that there will be an international shortage of crews in the
\nnear future. Some young people that have decided on a career at sea change their
\nminds and seek work ashore\u201d (Horck, 2006, p. 43). Considering IMO\u00b4s declaration
\non 2010 as the year of seafarer, therefore, shipping people including MET
\ninstitutions should work together to discover proper strategies on how to attract the
\nyoung generations to enter a seafaring career.
\n2.5 Shipping challenges with multinational crews
\nToday, the decline in the number of EU seafarers impacts on the choice of
\nemployment for non-EU seafarers. Global shipping employment is increasing with
\nmultinational crews that contribute to the multicultural and multilingual environment
\naboard ships (EU Commission, 2001).
\nFigure 4. World fleet developments (Source: EU Commission, 2001).
\n18
\nFigure 4 indicates the increase in world merchant shipping. This has gradually
\nimproved from 1988 until 2000. For the EU fleet over 300 GT, it shows that there
\nwas a reduction in the number year-by-year from the beginning of 1995 until 2000.
\nThe side-effect of the growth in the world fleet for ship owners and shipping
\ncompanies is focused on the recruitment of multinational seafarers.
\nTable 2. Number of EU and non-EU seafarers onboard EU registered ships.
\n(The figures (*) for UK and Greece are from 1996)
\nYear
\nOfficers Ratings Total
\nEU Non-EU EU Non-EU EU Non-EU
\n1985 58 140 1 144 120 496 27 781 205 637 28 926
\n1990 158 457 27 579
\n1995 52 255 2 551 76 473 30 480 128 728 33 031
\n1989-99
\n120
\n541(*)
\n34
\n534(*)
\n(Source: EU Commission, 2001).
\nTable 2 shows that seafarers from EU and the countries of Non-EU that are
\nbelonging to the Organization for Economic Countries and Development (OECD)
\nare decreasing. In reverse, there is an increasing number of seafarers employed
\nfrom Asia including the Philippines (20%), Indonesia, India, China, Vietnam, etc. and
\nalso from Baltic states, such Poland and former Soviet Union countries (Horck,
\n2006).
\nThe most challenging issue regarding multicultural and multilingual crews is the
\nhuman element onboard ship. This concerns how to work together and cooperate
\nwithin mixed-crews onboard ships. Various nationalities represent different cultures
\nwith different languages. The barriers which tend to affect the human element
\ninclude a lack of cultural awareness and communication failure. The International
\nMaritime Organization (IMO) has reported that by far the majority of accidents at sea
\nare caused by human error, and one of the main causes of these accidents and
\nincidents is due to the poor standards of Maritime English (Ziarati et al., 2009). A
\n19
\nlack of cultural awareness has become an important issue due to the cultural
\ndifferences onboard ships. Moreover, cultural differences brought by mixed-crews
\nbring complexity when they find disharmony caused by miscommunication and
\nmisunderstanding. This becomes a vital problem in social interaction within the
\nmulticultural and multilingual environment. There should be appropriate solutions to
\nbe discovered to solve the phenomenon to avoid further risks.
\nThe impact of multinational and multilingual crews in global shipping on MET
\ninstitutions is how to provide the appropriate education of soft skills. There is still no
\nnational policy provided by flag states regarding cultural awareness unless the
\ncommunication requirement becomes part of the ISM Code (Thoung, 2007). In
\norder to be able to work in a culturally diversified environment, each crewmember
\nneeds to have the technical skills and non-technical skills. Of course, the technical
\nskills include the competence to hold a certain rank and task on board. The nontechnical skills include the understanding of cultural differences and the ability to
\nsocialize in a multicultural environment. In this respect, I believe that both subject
\nareas are tasks for maritime institutions, including MET to care for in preparing for a
\nseafaring career. MET institutions should adapt the courses to satisfy the individual
\nstudents and to meet their wishes to build a career within the industry and this also
\nafter a time at sea (Horck, 2006). Therefore, the education of the multicultural
\nsubject as a soft skill needs to be considered to fulfill the global industry\u2019s
\nexpectation.
\n2.6 Chapter conclusion
\nGlobal culture means people sharing values, ideas, beliefs, customs, traditions and
\nnorms. Among many cultures, there are two dominant cultures in the world, namely
\nEastern and Western cultures. However, due to globalization both cultures have to
\ncollaborate and to cooperate each other. As an effect of the globalization, there is a
\ntendency to employ ship\u2019s crew from various nationalities. Manning ships with
\nmultinational and multicultural crews brings challenges on the one hand, and
\nbenefits on the other hand. The most challenging issues regarding mixed-crews
\nemployment are the communication and human factors. When these challenges can
\n20
\nbe well managed, such as by improving the technical and non-technical skills, the
\nbenefits from the employment of multicultural crews will be optimimal.
\n21
\nCHAPTER 3
\nA SOCIO-CULTURAL STUDY FOR IMPROVING
\nMARITIME SAFETY
\n“We may have different religions, different languages, different colored skin, but we
\nall belong to one human race.”
\n(Kofi Annan)
\nIn the 20th century the shipping industry was challenged BY multicultural ship\u2019s
\ncrews. In fact, this is not a new phenomenon in multinational shipping as this
\nindustry have been operated for many hundreds of years in an international setting
\n(Horck, 2008). Working together with mixed-crews onboard ship can possibly open
\nopportunities for misunderstanding and miscommunication. The socio-cultural
\napproach emphasizes on how to deal with the multinational and multicultural
\nenvironment. A knowledge of the socio-cultural approach tends to enhance on
\nunderstanding of the social and cultural aspect of humans (Ageyev et al., 2003).
\nTherefore, people can adapt to differences and adjust the problem of culture shock.
\nSince the human element has become a major priority in global shipping, seafarers
\nas humans need to socialize with other cross-cultural crew members. In this regard,
\nthe aspects of the human element need to be taken into consideration. These
\nconsist of communication skills, interrelationships, behavior, strategies to adjust the
\nculture shock and good leadership. A socio-cultural education improves awareness
\nand respect with crews members from other countries. However, the socio-cultural
\n22
\napproach does not intend to master the whole thing concerning ethnicity and
\ntraditions of people (Thuong, 2007).
\n3.1 The human element
\nThe human element is a critical feature of all aspects of ship operation or system
\ndesign, tiredness, boredom, cultural differences and affects the way in which a ship
\nis operated (Koester, 2005). Nowadays, one important challenge in international
\nshipping is to minimize the risks caused by the manning of multinational crews.
\nSince there is no formal international standard definition on the human element and
\nhuman factor, therefore, the interest areas related to the cognitive, psychological
\nand human aspects are used to incorporate the human element (ibid, 2005). The
\nnumber of accidents and incidents at sea shows to be far greater caused by human
\nerror, including communication failures and cross-cultural problems (Ziarati, 2007).
\nMoreover, the percentage of accidents explained by the human aspect is 70 to 80
\npercent (Horck, 2005). Casualty reports have shown that many more accidents have
\noccurred on ships manned by mixed-crews than operated by a single nationality
\n(IMO, 1994).
\nFigure 5. A ten-year trend of accidents attributed to human error
\n(Source: ABS project ( help with nursing paper writing from experts with MSN & DNP degrees), 2004).
\nFigure 5 indicates ship accidents due to human errors that have increased gradually
\nsince 1994. It is a fact that the human element is the most frequent reason that
\nleads casualties (de Oses et al., 2002). There are several important accident
\nreasons which are relevant to the human factor problematic with mixed-crews, such
\n23
\nas: miscommunications, lack of social interaction, misconceptions, power distance
\nand wrong stereotyping. Some casualties tend to be communication failures
\nonboard ships with mixed-crews can be seen in the Figure 6 below.
\nFigure 6. Main reasons of casualties (Source: Ziarati, 2006).
\nFigure 6 illustrates the ships casualties caused by human errors. The causes consist
\nof use of navigation equipment (28%), Communication (24%), Equipment failure
\nincluding engines (16%), Confusion due to standard and regulations (12%), the
\ninadequacy of standards\/applications by third parties (8%), Unknown (12%). A part
\nof the cause is communication failure. Although these problems are recognized as
\nbig challenges in multinational shipping, this factor is not treated as a major priority
\nof investigation. Sometimes the human factor can be seen as a significant element
\nin an accident that is never reported entirely (Koester, 2003). \u201cA deeper
\ninterpersonal reason is seldom reported and casualties investigators rarely ask
\nabout communication and social relations between the persons involved in an
\naccidents either at or before the accidents\u201d (Horck, 2008, p. 2). According to IMO
\nanalysis reports, most accidents were caused particularly due to ineffective
\nrelationships between master and crew members in bridge resource management.
\nThis often occurs because of cultural differences and language barriers (IMO-STCW
\n& Human Element Section, 2002). The table below shows several marine accidents
\nrelated with communication and cultural constraints.
\n24
\nTable 3. Maritime accidents due to cultural and language problems.
\nType of
\naccident Ship\/s by name
\nShip\u2019s
\nnationalit
\ny
\nYear
\nConstraints
\nCom
\n*)
\nCulture
\n**)
\nGrounding Torrey Canyon – LR 1967 \u221a \u221a
\nCollision Seadaniel Testbank PN GR 1980 \u221a
\nCollision Achat Oslo2 GR NR 1987 \u221a
\nFire Scandinavian Star – BS 1990 \u221a
\nGrounding Enerchem Fusion 1990 \u221a
\nGrounding Lake Anina 1990 \u221a
\nCollision Stanyslaw
\nKulcinsky
\nKattwykbridge PL 1991 \u221a
\nCollision Tuo Hai Tenyo Maru 1991 \u221a
\nGrounding Irving Nordic 1991 \u221a
\nGrounding Malinska YG 1991 \u221a
\nGrounding Braer – LR 1993 \u221a
\nCollision Butt Fishing
\nvessel
\nGR HL 1993 \u221a
\nAlmost
\ncollision
\nEtilico Major channel
\nbuoy
\nSP 1994 \u221a
\nCollision Aphrodite Anglia GR ML 1995 \u221a
\nCollision Alexandria Xin Hua 7 LR CN 1995 \u221a
\nGrounding Wealthy River Sky hope CN 1996 \u221a
\nGrounding Anjola AG BB 1996 \u221a
\nCollision Bright field Quayside
\nshopping cent
\nCN 1996 \u221a
\nGrounding Algolake – CA 1997 \u221a
\nCollision Tidan Anglo SW NO 1998 \u221a
\nCollision Xu Chang Hai Aberdeen PA BS 2000 \u221a
\nCrew death Sally Maersk – DK 2000 \u221a
\nGrounding Sea Mariner – CY 2002 \u221a
\nCollision Silja Opera Several SE 2003 \u221a
\nCollision Tricolor Kariba NO BS 2003 \u221a
\nCollision Hyundai Dominion UK HK 2004 \u221a
\nGrounding Domiat – EG 2004 \u221a
\nExplosion Bow mariner – GR 2004 \u221a
\nCollision Fu Shan Hai Gdynia CN CY 2004 \u221a
\nFire Maersk Doha 2006 \u221a
\nGrounding Crimson Mars SN 2006 \u221a
\n(Source: Compiled from Horck (2006, p. 38) and Thoung (2007, p.13))
\nSome examples of casualties rooted in communication and cultural constraints are
\nidentified in Table 2. However, human error as well as the human element is not<\/p>\n
Note: *) Communication, **) Culture. Bearing in mind that cultural problems are not clearly
\nmentioned in casualty investigation reports.
\n25
\nonly a causal problem, but it can also become an opportunity as well. For this
\nreason, there is a need to discover appropriate and effective solutions in order to
\nminimize accidents in multinational shipping.
\n3.1.1 Communication skills
\nGood communication contributes to good cooperation and less misunderstanding
\nonboard ships. Multinational shipping is a unique maritime industry because of the
\nvariety of people speaking different languages. Such a mixture is an interesting part
\nof the maritime industry. It is said to realize the fact that accidents and incidents at
\nsea show that human error increases (Ziarati et al., 2009). Within the multicultural
\nand multilingual environment, effective communication ship to ship and between
\nship and shore is vitally important for seafarers from many countries who are sailing
\nin international ships to all parts of the world (IMO-STCW & Human Element
\nSection, 2002).
\nIMO has analyzed the reports of marine casualties to find if there are any lessons to
\nbe learned for the future. Many investigated accidents are caused by operational
\nissues such as improper procedure, maintenance and design, although
\ncommunication difficulties also often occur in circumstances that are due to cultural
\ndifferences and language barriers. Poor skills in the English language are a
\nsignificant factor in the human errors that lead to about 80 percent of accidents at
\nsea (Safety at Sea, 2010). IMO states that about 80 percent of accidents at sea are
\ncaused by human error, and one of the main causes of these accidents and
\nincidents, some involving loss of life, a large number of injuries and extensive
\nfinancial loss, is the crews poor standard of Maritime English (Ziarati, 2007).
\nTherefore, seafarers must better apply the English language as a standard
\ncommunication at sea and as required by IMO. \u201cSeafarers need to make more use
\nof the International Standard Marine Communication Phrases-SMCP (Trenkner,
\n2010, p. 27).
\nThe IMO Secretary General, Eftimious E. Mitropoulos stated that today more than
\n90 percent of global trade is carried by sea which has fostered interdependency
\nbetween people who would previously have considered themselves completely
\nunconnected. In this respect, there is a need for a working language and that would
\n26
\nlargely be Maritime English (Cole & Trenkner, 2009). Therefore, IMO developed the
\nStandard Marine Navigational Vocabulary (SMNV), adopted in 1977 and amended
\nin 1985. Later, the SMCP was adopted in November 2001, resolution A.918 (22).
\nThe SMCP is often referenced in conventions, protocols, resolutions, etc. and those
\nare listed in Annex 1 of the article IMO-SMCP (IMO, 2002).
\nThere was an international seminar on Maritime English held at Istanbul Maritime
\nUniversity in Turkey where a presenter presented several ship casualties that were
\nrooted in communication barriers. The facts emphasized miscommunication and
\naddressed the serious problem and loss of life (IMO-STCW & Human Element
\nSection, 2002). In addition, a burden with differences in accent and pronunciation
\nmight lead to misunderstanding in relationships. Consequently, ineffective
\ncommunication brings about serious problems which cause damage and risk.
\nVarious examples of ship accidents caused by communication failure as illustrated
\nare the following:
\n\uf0b7 Tanker mooring accident. A 56,000 GT Bahamian flag tanker berthed at an oil
\nterminal in the UK when a mooring line parted and struck a crew member of a
\nmooring boat. The mooring line causes serious crew injuries. The pilot intended
\nto run the breast line ashore but not to make it fast until the ship was alongside
\nand had believed that the master understood his intention. However, the master
\nthought that the line should be heaved tight and instructed the mate accordingly.
\nCommunications between the master and the crew were in Korean, in which the
\npilot had not understood that language until the accident happened. The
\naccident was identified to be caused because of the failure in communications
\nbetween the pilot and the ship\u2019s master.
\n\uf0b7 Bulk carrier grounding. A 36,000 GT Panama flag bulk carrier left port under
\npilotage and grounding. The pilot was conning the vessel and gave instructions
\nto the helmsman but his attention was distracted and he failed to correctly check
\nthe actions of the helmsman. The pilot failed to hear the helmsman\u2019s replies and
\nthe ship swung out of the channel and went aground. The accident was
\nidentified to be poor communications between the helmsman and the pilot.
\n27
\n\uf0b7 Passenger ship fire. 158 people lost their lives because of a small fire that
\nstarted in the bedding and spread throughout the ship. Escape routes were
\nfilled with smoke and people unfamiliar with the ship needed the Helpance of
\nthe crew who gave signals on how far the way out. The signs were not in a
\nlanguage familiar to the passengers, so that it had provided an ineffective mean
\nof giving safety instructions. The officers and many crews did not share a
\ncommon language was not the same as most of the passengers. Although the
\nfire was not related to poor communications between officers and crews, the
\npoor safety management coupled with the inability of the officers to
\ncommunicate with all crews and the inability of the ratings to communicate with
\nthe passengers result the loss of life (Source: IMO-STCW & Human Element
\nSection, 2002).
\nThe above causalities show examples of accidents that happened in multicultural
\nship environments. The mixed-crews had problems in language communication. It
\ncan be inferred that English communication plays an important role for interaction
\nbetween ship and ship and ship to shore. Moreover, Maritime English language is
\nstandardized to be used in shipping in order to improve maritime safety (Cole and
\nTrenkner, 2003).
\nMaritime English is required to be used for seafarers onboard based on the SMCP
\nin which its formulation took seven years to complete and was ultimately adopted in
\n2001 and published in 2002 (Cole, 2003). Maritime English is not only used during
\nship operations, but also it can be useful as a tool for social interaction within
\nmultinational crews (Froholdt & Knudsen, 2007). Moreover, while IMO has clearly
\nmade substantial efforts to strengthen provisions concerning Maritime English
\nrequirements, this does not necessarily mean that the graduates of maritime
\nacademies are consistently well prepared and that the levels of competence
\nattained during training match the sufficient levels envisaged (Cole & Trenkner,
\n2009). However, if there is a high motivation from cadets to put an effort into
\npracticing their English language, it will be more helpful in improving their
\ncommunication skills.
\n28
\nProper Maritime English communication competence is not the only solution
\nonboard ship for better safety because there is also non-verbal communication,
\nnamely sign language. This needs to be taught, as many people consider that sign
\nlanguage, (especially professional signals) is an important communication method
\nonboard ship (Thoung, 2007). This type of language can also be used to
\ncomplement spoken English, particularly for non-native speakers when in
\nemergency and distress or involved in panic situations. In Japan, as an example,
\nsign language is used in noisy machinery spaces from the 1950s (Nakazawa, 2004).
\n3.1.2 Human relationships and social interactions
\nRelationships and interactions are two domain parts in social community that both
\nare interconnected with human beings. Different cultures involve different styles of
\ninteraction. Multicultural crews can create more constraints in comparison with
\nmonoculture crews (Thuong, 2007). In fact, social isolation has been found as a
\nsignificant problem for seafarers (Thomas, 2003). Hierarchy and power distance can
\nresult in social pressures in a cross-cultural environment. In addition, communication
\nalso affects lack of interpersonal relationships that possibly will address the risks
\n(Horck, 2008). Apart from the human element, therefore, human relationships and
\nsocial interactions are important to be considered as they help crews to avoid being
\nisolated and alienated.
\nFurthermore, crewmembers can be exposed to mental and psychological
\nconstraints which can create disharmony. As an instance, living in a hierarchical
\nstructure for long periods of time at sea possibly may create opportunities for
\npsychological pressure. The \u201cTorrey Canyon is a typical example of hierarchyworking environment leading to miscommunication. The officers were afraid of
\ncommunicating with the master\u201d (Horck, 2006, p. 39).
\nThis reason can be a considered to be direct or indirect root cause of accidents and
\nincidents of shipping casualties. Regarding working conditions onboard,
\nharmonization and cooperation among multicultural crews should be considered.
\nBeing tolerant to cultural differences can make better working condition. It should be
\n29
\nconsidered that every society has a unique culture. Good coordination and effective
\ncommunication are both vital things to avoid severe damages (Horck, 2008).
\n3.1.3 Behavior
\nAttitudes are the established ways of responding to people and situations that we
\nhave learned, based on the beliefs, values and assumptions we hold. Therefore
\nattitudes become manifested through our behavior (Bibikova et al, 2001). The need
\nof human beings to express themselves can not be separated from their social
\nexistence through their individual lives. Regarding West and East, the different
\nbehaviors can clearly be seen from in way of communication. Westerners prefer
\ndirect communication. Easterners see such communication as confrontational,
\nespecially to one in a culturally superior position (Amstrong, 2008).
\nIn terms of cultural diversity with mixed-crews, the challenge tends to be mostly
\ndifferences of attitude and behavior. Human characteristics can be recognized within
\nthe interaction among crews with their own root culture. Humor is another element of
\nsocial interaction and integration. However, a poor working language onboard could
\nlead to frustration (Thuong, 2007). Although various casualties are caused by
\nhuman error, this element is still not treated as a major priority of investigation. A
\ndeeper inter-personal reason for maritime accidents is seldom reported. Even the
\ncasualties\u2019 investigation reported in the International Maritime Organization (IMO)
\nresolutions, it appears that the casualty investigators rarely ask about the social
\nrelations between the persons involved in an accident or before an accident (Horck,
\n2008).
\n3.1.4 Cultural intelligence
\nThe socio-cultural aspect has an important role which is part of the human element
\nin the multinational and multicultural environment. Since multinational ships are
\nmanned by crews from different nationalities and different cultures, the aspect of
\nhuman element should be more emphasized rather than only focusing on ship
\ntechnology and its automation (Horck, 2004). Human element as well as the human
\nfactor defines as systematic methodology for improving the way people work
\ntogether. It produces an atmosphere where teams operate to their full potential
\n30
\nutilizing every member\u2019s contribution, everyone tells the truth, and each person
\ntakes full responsibility for his or her behavior and feelings (Schutz, 2002).
\n\u201c\u2026Human factors are the number of human related factors, which can also be
\ndominated as human element in the safe and efficient ships operation\u201d (Koester,
\n2003, p. 2). Therefore, in order to reduce safety risks, the critical issue of the human
\nelement is needed to be put consideration onboard ship.
\nA global workplace requires individuals to be sensitive to different cultures, to
\ninteract appropriately with people from different cultures, and to be able to analyze
\nnew cultures as they are encountered. To do this, whether they are at home or
\nabroad, need cultural intelligence (Tan, 2004). Cultural intelligence is defined as the
\nability to make oneself understood and the ability to create fruitful collaboration in
\nsituations when cultural differences play a role. It consists of the three dimensions of
\nthe classical division between emotion, understanding and action (Plum, 2007). It is
\nvital to avoid misunderstandings and conflicts in order to create collaboration and
\ngood cooperation within mixed-crews.
\nCultural intelligence concerns the ability to make adjustments within diversified
\ncultures. It is about cultural strategical thinking. The author refers partly to the
\nhuman thinking skills that individuals use to create an understanding on how and
\nwhy people in a new culture act as they do. In multinational and multicultural
\nenvironments, the phrase \u201ccultural intelligence\u201d can be described as a soft skill.
\nAttitude and behavior are naturally reflected by people own culture. Cultural
\nintelligence is referred to the ability to be flexible and open minded in a crosscultural environment. As a result, psychological constraints and culture shock can be
\nprevented. It is necessary to manage the stress and confusion that can cause
\nfrustration and clash (Tan, 2004). In this regards, adjustment from culture shock
\nneeds to be considered in a cross-cultural environment. Motivation is also another
\nimportant aspect. Personal knowledge of people is not enough. The importance of
\nmotivation leads people to learn and to know the differences between people who
\nhave different cultures and different perspectives. Motivation and spirit derive
\nadvantages to create mutual conditions. There is an example that shows how
\nprecious motivation is, as follows:
\n31
\n\u201cThey were trying not to listen to me; sometimes they were changing the
\ntopic (sample nursing essay examples by the best nursing assignment writing service) after my speaking. They were not paying attention. It went on like
\nthis for at least one or two months, and this was a bad experience. Later,
\nI just gave up trying to speak\u201d (Tan, 2004, p. 20).
\nOne Korean manager with a lot of experience on sailing with multinational crews
\nwas able to understand what was going on and why, but he had not been motivated
\nto try to deal with the cultural situation. His attitude reflected his own low motivation
\nand lack of self-confidence in his ability to work effectively. Consequently, he
\nsuffered from his teamwork. Cultural intelligence means to know and to try. In terms
\nof motivation, the manager should not escape from mental difficulties. Think
\npositive, be optimistic and keep on being motivated, and it solves a lot of problems. I
\nbelieve that a positive mind-set and with an appropriate strategy when arriving in a
\nnew culture can make people discover values and experiences that will effect
\ngrowth and maturity.
\n3.1.5 Leadership
\nIn a multicultural environment, a successful organization can be measured on how
\nthe leader applies the generous strategies within his managerial and leadership
\nstyle through employees who are from different nationalities. The successful
\nbusinessmen are those who learn to accept the small differences that make them
\nwork together for the greater good the working environment (Bordas, 2007). In this
\nregard, the capability of a person to influence, to motivate, and to enable others to
\ncontribute achievement in the working environment are parts of leadership.
\nHowever, it should be considered that not two people come from exactly the same
\nbackground (Robert, 2004). Even though there are similarities, every employer and
\nmanager is unique.
\nToday’s leadership models, although they may differ from person to person and
\nmethod to method, generally have a common bias toward their own cultures.
\n\u201cMulticultural leadership encourages an inclusive and adaptable style that cultivates
\nthe ability to bring out the best in diverse workforce of community with people from
\nmany parts of the globe\u201d (Bordas, 2007, p. 180).
\n32
\nAt sea, leadership is not only measured by seafarer competence in navigating and
\nengineering; technical skills on a professional perspective. Leadership is one part of
\nthe human element, a non-technical skill. This element is vital since its function is
\naimed at managing and organizing a ship\u2019s crews by using human intelligence, such
\nas cultural behavior and patience dealing with crews from different cultures. A leader
\nneeds to exhibit humility and sincerity and wishes to learn other cultures handling a
\nmultinational and multicultural workforce (Rentfrow, 2007). Moreover, leading
\nmulticultural crewmembers is an activity which is strongly integrated with humility
\napproaches since crews are human beings. It can affect a crew\u2019s productivity and
\nmotivation to work collaboratively onboard. Leadership corresponds to a supportive
\nstrategy in the multinational and multicultural environment. Although comprehension
\nof cultural values and behavior will not guarantee organizational success, it should
\nprovide leaders with an initial awareness and understanding of the critical aspects of
\neffective leadership within a specific culture (House, 2004). For example, personality
\ntraits and behavior of being fair, flexible, a good listener and responsible were highly
\nrated in leadership effectiveness for Japanese managers. In contrast with
\nAmericans, personality traits, behavior intelligence, honesty, understanding and
\nverbal skills are strongly endorsed (Bordas, 2007).
\nIn the position of the managerial level onboard ship, a shipmaster, therefore, should
\nbroaden his mind-set and his strategies to handle mixed-crews. A modern master
\nshould not be over proud on his seniority and hierarchical position. A person who is
\nselected for multinational leadership must work to adjust his or her strong sense to
\nthe national culture by adopting a multicultural mindset (Rentfrow, 2007). However,
\nthere is no absolute system and right leadership strategy to be implemented
\nelsewhere, as it obviously depends on individual characteristics and the style of the
\nleader. The style of leadership can be influenced by education, personality and
\nculture (House, 2004). Moreover, openness and a flexible manner in leadership
\nespecially in the cross-cultural environment influences the effectiveness and
\nefficiency that will improve the safety of life at sea. In a multicultural context
\nonboard, a master should emphasize good cooperation and harmonization.
\n33
\n3.2 Culture shock
\nThe multinational and Multicultural environment has become a challenge in today\u2019s
\nglobal society. Consequently, it affects constraints to people. \u201c\u2026its effect can be
\nmuch deeper and more prolonged if it is not dealt with effectively\u201d (Marx, 2001 p. 7).
\nIt demands that people need to know how to deal with new situations which are
\ntotally different to the daily activities that we are familiar with. Changes are
\ndiscovered in uncertain conditions as well as in many differences in routine,
\nrelationships, cultures, values, languages, customs, foods, etc. These differences
\naffect anxiety and create constraints which can cause culture shock.
\nThe inability to use an appropriate language to communicate with crews from
\ndifferent countries is an instance causing a constraint. Onboard ship, Maritime
\nEnglish has been internationally required as a standard communication language,
\nboth oral and written, for seafarers according to the STCW \u00b495 Reg. I\/4 a, SOLAS
\n\u00b474 Chapter V Reg. 14 and the ISM Code Chapter 1.33 and 6.7 (Horck, 2008).
\nTherefore, communicating English is useful to make effective interactions both
\npersonally and socially. In interpersonal relationships, usually crews tend to stay
\nwith others who have similarities, such as: cultures, viewpoints, norms, values, etc.
\nFigure 7. Diagram of culture shock (Source: Culbetson, 2002)
\nFigure 7 illustrates a culture shock framework. Culture shock reflects the anxiety
\nfeelings (of surprise, tension, frustration, embarrassment, confusion, etc.) when
\n34
\npeople have to interact within many different things and unknown culture. This
\nnatural feeling is encountered when people come to a new country. It grows out of
\nthe difficulties in assimilating the new people from a different culture (Wikipedia,
\n2009). An insecure feeling rooted in confusion and not knowing the new culture may
\nlead to frustration. The cultural adjustment period usually includes some
\ndisorientation brought on by such things as being confused as to where the cultural
\nboundaries are (Culbertson, 2002). Consequently, mental pressure and
\npsychological constraints can occur. People encounter psychological experiences
\nduring the time of cultural adjustment that accompanies a period of cultural
\nsocialization or acculturation. If the feeling of boredom and alienation cannot be
\nsolved, it may lead to risks (Horck, 2008). Therefore, a good way to make
\ninterpersonal relationship is chatting and to share feelings.
\nRegarding the matter of cross-cultural context, sometimes there is a gap between
\ncrew members from eastern and western cultures. Some European crews who work
\nwith people from Eastern cultures prefer to stay in groups in order to easily
\ncommunicate and share similar values. People in groups of more than four persons,
\ntend to take their culture with them to their new environment (Horck, 2005). If
\nnationality and culture are linked to religion then religious activities are performed
\ntogether. However, the gap should not occur if westerners and easterners can be
\nhumble to learn new cultures and open minded in socio-cultural adaptation (Bochner
\net al., 2001). There are four phases of culture shock, namely:
\n\uf0b7 Honey moon phase; exciting and intriguing phase. It is also called the distress
\nphase; the confusion feeling and struggling when arriving in the new culture.
\n\uf0b7 Adjustment phase; irritated and frustrated with the cross culture life, probably
\ncompares the new culture with own home culture; consciously or unconsciously
\nmay assess and evaluate of them.
\n\uf0b7 Autonomy phase; learning to accept the different culture, socializes and makes
\nadaptation.
\n\uf0b7 Independent phase; completely understands and adjusts to the host culture. The
\nfeeling is like a second home country (Ibid, 2001).
\n35
\nMoreover, culture shock is now understood much better than it was 15 years ago,
\nand it is guided by theories taken from various areas of social-psychology, mental
\nand physical health. In this sense, to prevent the psychological constraints and
\nculture shock, it is important to learn the new culture before starting to interact it.
\nPeople can experience considerable stress and anxiety when they are living in a
\nnew culture with different values from their own. The areas of religion, moral
\nbehavior, norms and ethics are areas where there may be a great deal of cultural
\nrelativism; People living and working overseas need to learn to deal with these
\ndifferences in a relaxed and non-judgmental way. The differences and similarities
\nare discovered as added values (Lancaster University, 2007). Therefore people
\npossibly find many constraints and difficult situations if they are not be pro-active to
\nfind solutions on how to deal with the new culture.
\nHowever, although the diversity environment is a complex atmosphere, it still can be
\ncoped with. It depends on how people deal with it. Everyone can learn from others.
\nTherefore, people possibly find many solutions on how to deal with it.
\n3.3 Adaptation and adjustment
\nPeople learn from others how to exchange information and to share their
\nexperiences to survive; and this wherever they are in a cross-cultural atmosphere.
\nUnderstanding other cultures can be assumed as cultural intelligence. As human
\nbeings, interaction is needed for our social existence. The key matter in a new
\nculture is how to diminish the culture shock by making adjustments and adaptations
\nin order to prevent risks. Several remarks on how to solve culture shock are
\nidentified in Appendix B.
\nOnboard ship, mixed-crews need interaction to avoid alienation. This may affect the
\npsychological constraints which possibly address frustration. \u201cA crew member not
\nbeing able to communicate easily becomes alienated and thereby a safety risk\u201d
\n(Horck, 2008, p. 1). However, culture shock can be managed by developing and
\nmaintaining social support to share experiences or just being with people who we
\nfeel comfortable with (Jacobs, 2007).
\nA person needs to put down ego-identity roots in the new host culture and feel more
\nat ease with themselves and their surroundings. That correct attitude will naturally
\n36
\ndevelop intercultural interaction skills. Doing this, people will become happier and
\nmore productive at work and at home or while being within the society at large.
\nPossibly, people will no longer be negatively affected by unconfirmed expectancies.
\nFurthermore, social surroundings can give a good impact or vise versa whereas this
\ncan not be neglected through human life. \u201cIn general, we are influenced by the
\nworld: our mental processing, our knowledge, our opinions, and our attitudes are
\nabout the world and shaped by the property of the world\u201d (Koester & Pyne, 2005, p.
\n3).
\nA huge resource for dealing with cultural differences is valuable in making an extra
\neffort to develop new networks both personally and professionally; to feel more
\nsettled. Humans need to control their minds positively and to protect themselves
\nfrom psychological constraints. When adaptation and adjustment can be achieved,
\nthe author believes that people grow up and mature following the learning process in
\ncross-cultural environments.
\n3.4 Relevance with reference to maritime safety
\nThe human element is a complex multi-dimensional aspect that affects maritime
\nsafety, security and marine environmental protection. It involves the entire spectrum
\nof human activities performed by ships’ crews, shore based management, regulatory
\nbodies and others (IMO, 2005). All need to cooperate to address human element
\neffectively. Therefore, competent seafarers who are the key persons to manning the
\nships shall apply the IMO-STCW \u00b495, ISM Code and SMCP fully with the purpose to
\nminimize casualties. Since time of manning ships with multinational seafarers,
\nMaritime English must be applied effectively onboard ship in accordance with the
\nSMCP. Furthermore, to work together with mixed-crews, harmonization and good
\ncooperation should also be emphasized to increase safety at sea.
\nIn relation with seafaring career, MET institutions have an important role in
\ninternational maritime industry to provide appropriate curriculums according IMOSTCW \u00b495 regulations and the flag states policy; not only regulated in technical skills
\nfor navigation and engineering study, but also human element subject as soft skills,
\nsuch as communication skills and cultural sensitivity as well as cultural awareness in
\nsocio-cultural subject. Multinational seafarers should be educated in cultural
\n37
\nawareness instead of having to learn the hard way to prevent the mistakes that
\nobviously become costly to the ship-owners (Horck, 2006). Therefore, the
\nintelligence in cross-cultural perspective should also be emphasized in maritime
\ninstitutions including MET as voluntary subject in order to meet the real diversified
\ncultures onboard ship. According to Hansen (2002), to be professional seafarers,
\ncadets\u2019 attitude should be improved and be helped by providing model course on:
\n\uf0b7 How to collaborate and to cooperate
\n\uf0b7 How to find expertise people and ask them the relevant questions
\n\uf0b7 Changing mentality to be more helpful and realize the benefits of Helping
\ncolleagues
\n\uf0b7 Learning how to work together in teamwork efforts
\nHowever, a model course concerning a socio-cultural subject has not been provided
\nyet in maritime institutions including MET. Cultural intelligence is an education about
\nIntercultural competence or global mindset (Early, 2004). In the context of
\nmultinational shipping, socio cultural is a relevant approach dealing with crews from
\ndifferent nationalities and different cultures. If this can be implemented properly in
\neducation educated, the author believes that MET institutions will contribute in
\nsupplying competent seafarers. Not only technical skill, but also human skill in order
\nto fulfill the shipping industry expectation. Therefore, maritime administrations
\nshould proactive involving a policy related socio-cultural subject in maritime
\ninstitutions. Education of multicultural at least will improve cadets cultural
\nunderstanding, so that they will be able to interact easily and to cooperate with
\ncross-cultural crews in working environment onboard ships (Rehman, 2007).
\n3.5 Chapter conclusion
\nThe human element is a critical aspect in shipping since it has been claimed to be
\nthe root cause of many marine accidents, of which some have been caused by
\nhuman error. Reports have shown that many casualties have occurred more often
\non ships manned by mixed-crews than operated by a single nationality. The
\ndifficulties often occur regarding with part of cultural differences. Therefore, in the
\n38
\nmulticultural context, the communication skill is an absolute skill. The solution to the
\ncommunication problem among multilingual crews is Maritime English. However,
\nthis factor\/element is not treated as a major priority of investigation. Good
\ncommunication skills and cultural intelligence would support good human
\nrelationships and social interaction as well as effective leadership. The solution of
\nthe communication problem among multicultural crews is not only Maritime English,
\nbut also cultural intelligence, which is the ability to adapt to and make adjustments
\nwith the new diversified cultures.
\nMoreover, the gap between the crews from different nationalities still exists due to
\nthe cultural adjustment problem (culture shocks). Therefore, culture shock can be
\nprevented by striving to become more flexible in thinking and behavior by
\ndeveloping a real enthusiasm for learning about the host culture and forming
\nintercultural relationships. When this problem is not solved, there is a tendency for
\nfurther problems which lead to safety risks. A type of education in soft skill, such as
\ninternational culture knowledge, is needed. Maritime institutions including MET hold
\nthe important role in providing this type of education for seafarers to strengthen the
\nhuman element in multinational shipping. However, a publication such as a model
\ncourse issued by IMO related to cross-cultural matters has not yet been provided.
\n39
\nCHAPTER 4
\nRESEARCH METHODOLOGY
\n\u201cSomewhere, something incredible is waiting to be known.\u201d
\n(Carl Sagan, 1934-1996)
\n4.1 Qualitative and quantitative methods
\nIn the terms of the research method, the author relies on the qualitative approach.
\nThis emphasizes the understanding of social phenomena through direct
\nobservation, communication with participants and analysis of texts. The current
\nresearch is based on observation in the field and by collecting data from sampling.
\nThe questionnaire is addressed to seafarers and non-seafarers by distributing
\ndirectly, electronically and by posting through mail addresses. As there was a
\nlimitation of time frame, these are valuable devices and effective in inductive
\nresearch. Besides this, the observation was conducted by individual conversations.
\nSeafarers (and former seafarers) that have seafaring experiences with mixed-crews
\nwere interviewed. The samples interviewed are from Indonesia, Iraq, Madagascar,
\nMalawi, Netherlands, Sweden, Turkey and UK. In addition, the conversations were
\nrecorded with the average time being 35 minutes and without recognizing the
\nquestions in advance. The conversation topic (sample nursing essay examples by the best nursing assignment writing service)s discussed concerned the sociocultural aspects in the multicultural context.
\n40
\nThe literature research was carried out from books, magazines, articles and other
\nreliable sources. A study of inductive reasoning is generally carried out within the
\nfield recognized as informal sense or critical thinking (Burney, 2008).
\nBesides the above, a quantitative approach was also used in the current research.
\nThe number of respondents were pooled in the summary (Appendix G and Appendix
\nH) and all the data pooled and kept confidentially. The responses consisted of Yes
\nand No, Agree, Disagree, Not sure and Disagree.
\n4.2 Research structure
\nThe author has incorporated the check and balances between several hints;
\nliterature search, observations, questionnaires, conversations and her own
\nexperience of studying in a multicultural environment. From the retrieved
\ndata\/materials, a comparative approach is included. The questionnaires and
\nconversations were designed as instruments collecting the respondent\u2019s opinions.
\nSince this research tends to focus on the social-cultural and human aspects, a
\nqualitative study is an appropriate approach to be used. This approach is useful in
\nobtaining insight into people’s attitudes, behaviors, value systems, concerns,
\nmotivations, aspirations, culture or lifestyles (Ereaut, 2007). It is realized that
\ncollecting and analyzing this unstructured information has been very time consuming
\nbecause of the manual method required.
\nFigure 8. Research structure
\n1. Literature search
\n5. Data management
\n4. Conversations
\n3. Questionnaires
\n2. Observations
\n6. Survey findings
\n41
\nThe phases of this research are structured as follows:
\n1. Literature search, the materials were collected from libraries and search engines
\nin order to find relevant information. Literature search is useful due to enrich the
\nstudy from theories before incorporate them into analysis and synthesis.
\n2. Observations. The activities in the fieldwork were conducted at two sites;
\nonboard merchant ships and at WMU. In addition, respondents were categorized
\ninto two, seafarers and non-seafarers and they were considered to have work
\nexperience in multicultural environments.
\n3. Questionnaires. Questionnaires were given to a sample who serve on
\nmultinational ships that operate in Europe and to WMU\u00b4s students who are from
\ndifferent nationalities. The feedback from the samples has shown a positive
\nresponse with a return rate of 75 percent.
\n4. Conversations. Individual conversations were conducted face-to-face onboard
\nship and at the WMU premises. In addition, verbal data samples were recorded
\nby using audio recording and written notes.
\n5. Data management. The entire materials were carefully collected from the
\nsample. During data processing, the answers were sorted and typed everyday in
\nWord and Excel programs. In addition, the data taken from conversations were
\nrecorded and transcribed manually.
\n6. Survey findings. The responses from questionnaires and individual
\nconversations were indicated and discussed in survey findings. The
\nquestionnaires were arranged in the connection of the research objectivities.
\nThe survey data were measured and inferred in the statistics.
\n4.3 The questionnaire
\nIn this method, the respondents were chosen randomly. The Questionnaires were
\nanswered by ticking Yes or No; Strongly agree, Agree, Not sure or Disagree. Some
\nanswers were put comments or opinions. All these responses are kept confidential.
\nFurthermore, Entire responses were returned directly; some were sent electronically
\nand others were posted by mail address. It is realized that there is no perfect way to
\naccomplish this survey that these methods still need many input and advice in order
\n42
\nto improve further research, however. To the author, this research has given
\nvaluable experience. A socio-cultural study in the light of multicultural crews gave an
\nopportunity to the author to closely learn about cultural diversity and human aspects
\nin the maritime field. Moreover, this study enriches the author\u2019s understanding of
\nhow important the human elements in the global environment are in order to
\nimprove maritime safety in shipping.
\n4.4 The conversation
\nThere are several roles that should be considered by an interviewer, for instance:
\nlocating and enlisting respondents, motivating respondents to do a good job,
\nclarifying any confusion\/concerns, observing quality of responses and conducting a
\ngood interview (Trochim & Donnely, 2006). Individual conversations were also
\nconducted in this survey. To enhance the data collection, the author conducted
\ninterviews from seafarer respondents (and former seafarers). The interviewees
\nexpressed their opinions and viewpoints with open mind. The topic (sample nursing essay examples by the best nursing assignment writing service)s of conversation
\nare highlighted as follow:
\n1. What is your opinion about a global culture?
\n2. What are the challenges within multinational crews onboard ship?
\n3. If you worked with mixed-crews, did you find any constraints or difficulties? Give
\nyour comment!
\n4. What is your opinion about socio-cultural approach in multicultural environment?
\n5. Do you think a socio-cultural study is important to be taught in maritime
\ninstitutions? Why?
\n6. Should IMO recommend a socio-cultural publication? Why?
\nThe average duration of the conversations was about 35 minutes. The topic (sample nursing essay examples by the best nursing assignment writing service)s were
\nbroadened to more than five questions as well. The conversation topic (sample nursing essay examples by the best nursing assignment writing service)s are mainly
\nrelated to cross-cultural situations onboard which the interviewees familiar with;
\nwhat is the language used to communicate and what approach is appropriately
\nuseful when dealing with multicultural and multilingual crews. Moreover, the
\nquestions were also related to the importance of socio-cultural education in maritime
\ninstitutions due to the safety of life at sea. The interviewees posed their own
\ncomments openly in responding to the issues.
\n43
\n4
\n1
\n2
\n2
\n1
\n1
\n4
\n1
\n4
\n2
\n4
\n1
\n29
\n2
\n2
\n8
\n4
\n4
\n19
\n1
\n2
\n1
\n3
\n10
\n3
\n1
\n2
\n3
\n3
\n5
\n2
\n2
\n6
\n1
\n3
\n1
\n3
\n9
\n1
\n2
\n1
\n1
\n3
\n2
\n4
\n3
\n2
\n0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
\nAlgerian
\nArgentine
\nBahamian
\nBahrain
\nBangladeshi
\nBenin
\nBritish
\nBrazilian
\nCape Verde
\nChilean
\nChinese
\nColombian
\nDutch
\nEgyptian
\nEthiopian
\nFilipino
\nGhanaian
\nIndian
\nIndonesian
\nIranian
\nIraqi
\nItalian
\nJapanese
\nKorean
\nMadagascar
\nMalaysian
\nMalawian
\nMozambican
\nMyanmarese
\nPortuguese
\nPakistani
\nPeruvian
\nRussian
\nSenegalese
\nSierra Leonean
\nSri Langkan
\nSpanish
\nSwedish
\nSaudi Arabic
\nSyrian
\nYemeni
\nSenegalese
\nTanzanian
\nThai
\nTunisian
\nTurkish
\nUruguaian
\nRespondents
\nCHAPTER 5
\nSURVEY FINDINGS
\n\u201cAll truths are easy to understand once they are discovered; the point is to discover
\nthem\u201d
\n(Galileo Galilei)
\n5.1 Respondent Demography
\nA total of 188 respondents participated in this survey (n=188). The respondents
\nwere from almost all the inhabited continents in the world: Africa, America, Asia,
\nMiddle East and Europe.<\/p>\n
Figure 9. Respondents\u2019 demography
\n44
\nSeafarer,
\n52%
\nNonSeafarer,
\n48%
\n5.2 Respondents\u2019 professional backgrounds
\nThe respondents presented their unique opinions in the light of multicultural issues.
\nAs this research deals with the seafaring profession, the author has classified it into
\ntwo categories based on the respondents\u2019 professional backgrounds, i.e. seafarers
\nand non-seafarers. 52 percent of the seafarers respondents (including former
\nseagoing) and 48 percent non-seafarers participated in this survey (Figure 10).<\/p>\n
Figure 10. Professional background
\nWMU is an example of multinational and multicultural student\u2019s environment in the
\nmaritime field. It is a unique international university under the umbrella of the UNIMO that contains colleagues from different nationalities; having different cultures,
\ndifferent professions and different educational backgrounds. Likewise, diversified
\ncultures reflect not only WMU, but also Malm\u00f6. People from different countries live
\nin this city. Although this part of the sample is not necessarily coming from a
\nseafaring career, generally, this city is familiar with multicultural people. The areas
\nof sample consist of: WMU students; multinational seafarers and inhabitants of
\nMalmo city. The respondents that have returned the questionnaire are listed in
\nAppendix D.
\n45
\nNo, 21%
\nYes, 79%
\n5.3 Survey findings
\n5.3.1 Seafarers
\n97 respondents, both active and former seafarers, participated in this survey. The
\nactive seafarers are those who were serving with multinational crewmembers when
\nthe onboard survey was conducted. Former seafarers involved are those who
\nstudying at WMU and had sailed with mixed-crews. This specific selection of
\nrespondents is aimed at focusing on the viewpoint of seafarers through the issues of
\nsocio-cultural education for cadets\/seafarers in the light of the multinational and
\nmulticultural environment onboard. This is the main objective of this study.
\nSeafarers\u2019 respondents are from various countries including Cape Verde, Indonesia,
\nMadagascar, Netherlands, Russia, Ukraine and the United Kingdom.<\/p>\n
Figure 11. Seafarers who have sailed with multinational crews
\nIn this survey, about 79 percent of the respondents worked with multinational crews
\nand a small number worked within a monocultural environment onboard (Figure 11).
\nOnboard ship, English communication is an absolute means to exchange
\ninformation with multicultural and multilingual crews. As is generally known, Maritime
\nEnglish is the most common language in the international maritime industry. The
\nquestion \u201cDid your company require sufficient English language both written and
\nspoken of you?\u201d is included in this survey. 77 percent respondents were required to
\nhave sufficient English by their company, however, a small portion was not required
\nto have sufficient English because they work with mono-cultural crews
\n(domestic\/local trade) (Figure 12).
\n46
\nYes
\n77%
\nNo
\n23%
\n24
\n6
\n57
\n10
\n0 10 20 30 40 50 60
\nOthers
\nSpanish
\nEnglish
\nArabic
\nYes, 83%
\nNo, 17%
\n15
\n16
\n22
\n25
\n19
\n0 5 10 15 20 25 30
\nOthers
\nFood
\nBehavior
\nCulture
\nBelief
\nFigure 12. Did your company require
\nsufficient English language both written
\nand spoken of you?
\nFigure 13. What language did you
\nuse to communicate onboard ship?
\nIn practice, 57 out of 97 ticked English as the language used for communication
\nonboard ships (Figure 13). This response proved that English is mostly used as a
\nworking language and that it helps crews working together as well as socializing.
\nWorking with mixed-crews has been a challenge for the respondents since various
\nbarriers related to humans may arise. Consciously or unconsciously, a crews\u2019
\nbehavior can be influenced by an individual culture. Many differences between
\nWestern and Eastern crews can be recognized by: food, belief, culture behavior, etc.
\nIn practice, many respondents ticked \u201cculture\u201d and \u201cbehavior\u201d as major differences
\namong mixed-crews (Figure 14 and Figure 15).
\nFigure 14. Do you find any differences
\nbetween crew members from Western
\nand Eastern cultures?
\nFigure 15. What source of
\ndifferences did you find?
\nNot being adaptable with differences can possibly correspond with many difficulties,
\nsuch as psychological constraints, mental pressure, stress and culture shock.
\n47
\n15
\n8
\n20
\n21
\n33
\n0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
\nRespondents
\nOthers
\nHumor
\nPower distance
\nHuman relation
\nCommunication
\nYes, 67%
\nNo, 33%
\nNo, 28%
\nYes, 72% Yes, 74%
\nNo, 26%
\nFigure 16. Did you have experience
\nconstraints\/problems working with
\nmixed-crews?
\nFigure 17. Constrains\/problems with
\nmixed-crews onboard ship
\nAbout 81 percent of seafarers found several constraints within cross-cultural crews.
\nSome of those constraints are communication, human relation, power distance and
\nhumor (Figure 16 and Figure 17). In practice, a communication problem is a
\ndominant portion on board ship (33 respondents). For example, unclear
\npronunciation and accent problems lead to misunderstandings and misinterpretation
\n(ambiguity). This can impact on the risks of ship operations. Therefore, it is
\nnecessary to use clear and correct pronunciation and be well understood.
\nSocializing and sharing may help to enhance the emotional balance within crews.
\nMoreover, it functions to avoid boredom and loneliness.
\nFigure 18. Did you socialize with other
\nmixed-crews after duty?
\nFigure 19. Are Human relations and
\nsocial interactions important?
\nAbout 72 percent of respondents (seafarers) socialized with their mates from
\ndifferent nationalities after duties, but some preferred not to do so because of certain
\nreasons (Figure 18). Human relationships and social interactions are two things that
\ncan not be separated socially and professionally. Responses concerning the
\n48
\nRe sponde nts
\nNo, 22%
\nYes, 78%
\nNo, 18%
\nYes, 82%
\nimportance of human relations and social interactions show that 74 percent
\nrespondents ticked \u201cYes\u201d (Figure 19). Although its necessity is obvious, some
\nrespondents prefer not to get along because it is sometimes complex to interact with
\ncrews from different countries, but it depends on each individual personality.
\nAnother issue is the socio-cultural approach. This feature concerns the ability to
\nunderstand humans, socially and culturally. At sea, crews need places where they
\ncan meet and share in a more relaxing situation, especially after stressful work. At
\nsuch gatherings, the socio-cultural approach will take over the role in building the
\ninteraction.
\nFigure 20. Is the socio-cultural
\napproach important in the multinational
\nenvironment onboard ship?
\nFigure 21. Do you think a sociocultural approach can harmonize the
\nworking environment?
\n82 percent of the respondents ticked \u201cYes\u201d to the question: \u201cIs socio-cultural
\nimportant in multinational environment onboard ships?\u201d (Figure 20). \u201cDo you think a
\nsocio-cultural approach can harmonize working environment?\u201d Regarding this
\nquestion, about 78 percent (76 respondents) answered \u201cYes\u201d (Figure 21). It can be
\ninferred that a socio-cultural approach is important to be considered in the
\nmulticultural and multilingual context. This is a key matter for supporting safety
\nwithin mixed-crews onboard ships. This approach is intended to help people to
\nunderstand and to adjust themselves in cross-cultural environments. Unfortunately,
\nthere is no education provided concerning the cross-cultural approach. Since human
\nerrors are mainly related to a lack of communication and lack of cultural awareness.
\nTherefore, socio-cultural course should be provided at MET institutions and\/or in
\nshipping companies. A question to investigate the necessity of socio-cultural
\neducation is presented in Figure 21.
\n49
\n25
\n45
\n22
\n5
\n0
\n10
\n20
\n30
\n40
\n50
\nRespondents
\nStrongly
\nagree
\nAgree Not sure Disagree
\nFigure 22. Respondent\u2019s view on Socio-cultural education and if
\nit helps seafarers dealing with mixed-crews onboard ship.
\n45 respondents agreed and 25 more strongly agreed with this idea (Figure 22), that
\nasocio-cultural course is important as it helps crews to understand new or other
\ncultures. Therefore, it can be inferred that socio-cultural knowledge is needed for
\nseafarers as it helps to strengthen social skills and the mental framework. This soft
\nskill enables seafarers to bridge the differences in a cross-cultural setting. A Dutch
\ncrew respondent expressed his opinion regarding this matter: \u201cThere should be an
\neducation about how to learn the host culture where crews are going to sail to a
\ncertain country\u201d. At least human errors can be reduced which eventually minimizes
\nthe incidents and accidents. Therefore, such education should be provided.
\nIn MET institutions and\/or shipping companies, a socio-cultural subject can be
\nprovided as a non-technical skill. Such an ability is needed to be tough to
\ncadets\/seafarers in order to improve their sensitivity with humans and their cultures.
\nWith the ability gained, cadets are intelligent on how to respect other crews with
\ntheir own unique characteristics in the multicultural environment onboard ship.
\nTherefore, there is a need to put a socio-cultural subject in the curriculum.
\n50
\n16
\n53
\n17
\n11
\n0
\n10
\n20
\n30
\n40
\n50
\n60
\nRespondents
\nStrongly
\nagree
\nAgree Not sure Disagree
\nNo, 30%
\nYes, 70%
\nFigure 23. Should the socio-culture
\nsubject be included in the curriculum?
\nFigure 24. Should IMO recommend a
\npublication (guideline similar to Model
\nCourses 3.17 or the SMCP) related to
\nthe socio-cultural subject.
\nResponding to the question \u201cShould socio-culture subject be included in
\ncurriculum?\u201d in this survey, about 70 percent of the respondents ticked \u201cYes\u201d with
\nthis idea (Figure 23). It can be inferred that the subject of socio-culture should be put
\nin the MET curriculum as non-technical education. To support this education, related
\nparties need to work together to realize it in the field. That IMO should issue a
\nguideline related to socio-cultural education (similar to Model Course 3.17 and 1.21),
\nabout 53 respondents ticked \u201cAgree\u201d and 16 more \u201cstrongly agree\u201d with this
\nstatement (Figure 24). It can be concluded that it is important to include crosscultural education in the curriculum. In this respect; related parties including IMO
\nshould consider recommending a guideline related to a socio-cultural subject similar
\nto Model course 3.17 and 1.21. In these IMO Model courses, Maritime English and
\nHuman responsibility are deliberated. However, cultural knowledge and its
\nunderstanding are not provided in specific\/detail.
\n5.3.2 Non-seafarers
\n91 non-seafarer respondents participated in this survey. These were from, Africa,
\nAsia, Europe and the Middle East. This survey was a fruitful study because
\ncolleagues are from different nations and different cultures that represent
\nmultinational and multicultural societies. The multinational respondents selected are
\nfrom WMU, Lund University, Chalmers University and locals in Malm\u00f6 city. The
\nlatter represents a multicultural environment since immigrants have different
\nnationalities. Many people live in Malmo for some reasons such as: war,
\nrefugee\/asylum, ambassador, missionaries and looking for a safer place. In the
\n51
\n5
\n11
\n23
\n27
\n25
\n0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
\nRespondent s
\nFood
\nHumor
\ninterpersonal skills
\nCommunication
\nSocial interactio
\nYes, 79%
\nNo, 21%
\nYes, 23%
\nNo, 77%
\nNo, 33%
\nYes,67%
\ncross-cultural environment, different people have different experience in adapting
\nand adjusting themselves.
\nFigure 25. Multinational and
\nmulticultural is a challenge in the
\nmaritime industry.
\nFigure 26. Is it easy to adapt and to
\nadjust to the multinational and
\nmulticultural environment?
\nThe fact that nationality and cultural differences become challenges in the maritime
\nindustry is proven in this survey, as seen in Figure 25. On the question \u201cIs it easy to
\nadapt and to adjust with multinational and multicultural environment?\u201d 77 percent of
\nthe respondents answered \u201cNo\u201d (Figure 26). It can be concluded that it is not easy to
\ndeal with the challenges of a multinational and multicultural environment. Cultural
\naspects is a sensitive matter since many different things may result in people having
\na complex culture shock, especially when people can not reach their expectations
\nwithin another other culture. In this survey, 67 percent of the respondents had have
\nexperience of culture shock (Figure 27).
\nFigure 27. Did you have any
\nexperience of culture shock?
\nFigure 28. What sources of constraints\/
\nproblems did you find?
\nNot being adaptable to new cultures affects culture shock. Consequently, the
\nconstraints such as social interaction, communication, interpersonal relationships,
\n52
\n34 36
\n18
\n3
\n0
\n5
\n10
\n15
\n20
\n25
\n30
\n35
\n40
\nStrongly
\nagree
\nAgree Not sure Disagree
\nResp ond ents
\n27
\n38
\n19
\n7
\n0
\n5
\n10
\n15
\n20
\n25
\n30
\n35
\n40
\nStrongly
\nagree
\nAgree Not sure Disagree
\nRespondents
\nhumor and food more intensively occur in multicultural people compared with the
\nmonocultural environment. In practice, 27 respondents have a communication
\nconstraint dealing with the cross-cultural society (Figure 28). Using mother language
\nwithin respondents from similar culture becomes a barrier and it affects cultural
\nconstraints, such as miscommunication and misunderstanding. The issue of human
\nrelationships and social interaction can not be neglected since good interpersonal
\nrelationship leads to good cooperation.
\nFigure 29. Human relations and social
\ninteractions are needed.
\nFigure 30. Cultural intelligence is vital
\nin the multinational & multicultural
\nenvironment.
\nFigures 29 and 30 show the importance of human relations and social interaction in
\nthe multicultural environment. In this survey, 38 respondents ticked \u201cAgree\u201d with this
\nidea (Figure 29). A small portion of the sample responded \u201cDisagree\u201d for a particular
\nreason. Therefore, it can be inferred that human relationships and social interactions
\nare needed in a global society. The statement that cultural intelligence is vital in the
\nmultinational & multicultural environment resulted in 34 respondents ticking \u201cStrongly
\nagree\u201d and 36 respondents ticking \u201cAgree\u201d (Figure 30). Therefore, it can be inferred
\nthat its importance is to derive better relationships in the cross-cultural environment.
\nLearning from casualties, the challenge of human error should be solved. A
\npreventive action should be undertaken. A question is assigned: \u201cDo you think
\nsocio-cultural education in cross-cultural environment can improve safety?\u201d
\n53
\n27
\n30
\n25
\n9
\n0
\n5
\n10
\n15
\n20
\n25
\n30
\n35
\n40
\nStrongly
\nagree
\nAgree Not sure Disagree
\nRespondents
\nNo, 29%
\nYes, 71%
\nYes, 77%
\nNo, 23%
\nFigure 31. Do you think the socio-cultural approach
\nimproves the human element and maritime safety?
\nIn this survey, about 71 percent of the respondents ticked \u201cYes\u201d concerning the idea
\nof a socio-cultural education can improve safety in a cross-cultural environment
\n(Figure 31). Regarding this, a cross-cultural education can be provided in theory
\nand\/or in practical onboard training ships. This subject aims to help people solve
\nculture shock; to improve cultural understanding and to respect people from other
\ncultures. The socio-cultural education contains the human skills, such as:
\ncommunication skill, cultural intelligence and leadership skill. The observation on
\nthe necessity to conduct a socio-cultural course in maritime institutions can be seen
\nin Figure 32.
\nFigure 32. Is socio-cultural
\neducation necessary to be provided
\nin maritime institutions?
\nFigure 33. Your government (Maritime
\nAdministration) should take an initiative to
\nprovide practical study\/curriculum for
\nimproving cultural awareness (social
\nskills) and propose it to the IMO when
\npossible.
\n54
\nAbout 77 percent of the respondents answered \u201cYes\u201d (Figure 32) to the question
\n\u201cShould maritime institutions provide a socio-cultural course?\u201d. From this result, it
\ncan be inferred that socio-cultural education is necessary to be provided in maritime
\ninstitutions. This study is pertinent for the people (seafarers) who work in a
\nmultinational situation. In supporting this course, Governments (Maritime
\nAdministrations) should take the initiative to provide practical study\/curriculum for
\nimproving cultural awareness (social skills) and propose it to IMO when possible. In
\nthis survey, 57 respondents (about 63 percent) responded \u201cStrongly agree\u201d and
\n\u201cAgree\u201d with this idea (Figure 33). However, some answered \u201cDisagree\u201d. Possibly,
\nthe reason is because there is still no IMO guideline concerning cultural knowledge
\nwhich is applicable into a curriculum. IMO should facilitate such a kind of published
\ndocument that is applicable for cadets\/seafarers in maritime institutions. As an
\nexample, the Maritime English curriculum has been made as in the IMO Model
\nCourse 3.17 and SMCP. Similarly, there should be such a guideline for sociocultural knowledge from which the curriculum can be formulated. As cultures and
\nhumans have broad interpretations, no exact standard can be implemented in all
\ncountries. \u201c\u2026IMO can require each member state to send its unique features that
\nthis country needs the shipping world to know\u2026nobody understands other cultures
\nbetter than the person who belongs to this culture\u201d (Thuong, 2007, p. 36). Therefore
\nIMO needs to work together with its member states (Maritime Administrations). IMO
\nshould require each country to collect its national standard of culture that needs to
\nbe recognized in the world maritime society. When the data from the countries have
\nbeen collected, IMO can formulate a recommendation appropriately.
\n5.4 Sample from the respondents answers
\nThe characteristics of people from different countries are clearly unique. Cultures
\ncan influence how people express themselves in the work environment or in social
\nlife. Onboard ships, the multinational environment challenges the human element.
\nThe following conversations were taken from multinational seafarers who are
\nfamiliar with the mixed-crew environment onboard ships. The topic (sample nursing essay examples by the best nursing assignment writing service)s concern the
\ncultural issues. The abbreviation IR stands for the interviewer and IE stands for the
\nInterviewee.
\n55
\nExcerpt 1: general idea of global (international) culture as well as the differences
\nbetween West and East cultures.
\nIR: What is your opinion about international culture?
\nIE: The culture amongst nations. That culture gives impact with behavior,
\nattitude, (yes\u2026yes…) that is totally true.
\nIR: What is your opinion about differences between Western and Eastern crews?
\nIE: There are characteristics between Eastern and Western. (Mmm\u2026) for
\nexample: the notions of punctuality, family, work (profession) and discipline.
\nYou have to know cultural background. It was very complicated when I found
\nmixed-crews from Moslem country. (mmm…) each of them eat certain food.
\nThere were certain ways. For example: eating `Halal` food. (hh\u2026yes…)
\nBelief can impact culture. It should be respected when you are working with
\npeople from different nationalities. Another thing is communication, onboard
\nship, I found mostly they prefer to collect with crews from same countries
\nand using their mother language, instead of English. Between Eastern and
\nWestern almost has same behavior. (Mm\u2026) may be because easy to them
\nexpress their feeling (laughing).
\nIE affirms an opinion about global culture. According to IE, it is the culture amongst
\nnations. Those cultures are reflected in attitude and behavior. In his comment, there
\nare the distinctive characteristics of the Easterner and Easterner. In the matter of
\nbelief, IE also affirms about food. Moslem crews can only eat the Halal foods and
\nbeverages. To harmonize the differences, non-Moslem crews\u2019 onboard ship should
\nrespect with other friends, and vice versa. IE speaks enthusiastically about this
\nissue.
\nOpinion(s) from a Swedish interviewee regarding the respective issues were also
\nrecorded, as follows:
\nIR: Can you see the differences between East and West?
\nIE: Yes, of course many. Completely different. But instead of differences,
\nthere are also similarities because we are humans\u2026 (Laughing…). The
\nway of communication is two completely difference. Western is quite
\ndirect. (ee..)\u2026if he does not like or disagree something\u2026 he speaks
\ndirectly. But I find my friend from USA said Swedish communication is very
\n56
\nindirect.. is quite subtle and peaceful..(hhmm). In Eastern, is quite not easy
\nto speak disagreement to reach directly on that person. Somehow I
\ninterpret the meaning on indirect communication. (\u2026) to handle this, I
\nsometime ensure myself to check it again whether my speaking is
\nunderstood. For me, the most significant is.. me as a western, I want to
\nknow the Eastern culture.. Eastern culture is not appropriate to say that
\nyou do not agree with your boss, and is not appropriate to ask many
\nquestions because it will appear that you do know anything. (Mm\u2026) So,
\neven when I communicate with someone, for e.g. from Indonesia, I have to
\ndouble check that they also understand the information. Because I tell
\nthem into direct\u2026.
\nIR: Onboard ship, did you find difficulties so far to communicate?
\nIE: At sea when I speak with eastern culture, even more is subtle, could be
\nmore indirect (\u2026) me as a Swedish guy sometimes I find difficult to know
\nwhat my friend say from Indonesia, actually are trying to say.. But they are
\ndeep in someway (hehe..) that I suppose to understand, but is not always.
\nIR: What about a leadership?
\nIE: From my own experience I can say leadership in western focused on
\nresult (\u2026) whilst eastern tend to concentrate in the process\u2026 Another
\nthing is some eastern emphasize to follow the rule, (hh\u2026) others
\nemphasize to take initiative on the situation; of course different approach
\ncan be good or bad… (ja..ja..).
\nIE expressed how Western and Eastern people communicate with each other. This
\nconcerns communication style. IE speaks directly and open mindedly. IE\u00b4s behavior
\nand the way of speaking represent a Westerner. IE comments that although
\nWesterners are known for directness, sometimes indirect style communication is
\nadopted when speaking with European people.
\nIE from Madagascar gives an opinion on the different perspectives. IE emphasizes
\ncommunication in group onboard ship. Onboard ship, crew members from similar
\ncountries prefer to speak in group with each other rather than chatting with crew
\nmembers from other countries. Naturally, this is a normal interaction that can not be
\nforced.
\n57
\nAnother topic (sample nursing essay examples by the best nursing assignment writing service) which concerns culture shock is transcribed below:
\nExcerpt 2: the topic (sample nursing essay examples by the best nursing assignment writing service) is about culture shock and how to make adaptation and
\nadjustments.
\nIR: What is your opinion about culture shock?
\nIE: It is coming from misunderstanding or not knowing. When one culture and
\nyou are shock what seems to be happened.
\nIR: How to adapt within culture shock?
\nIE: Well\u2026it depends on every individual. If you work with whatever type of
\nships, you will work with prior embankment on board. Which nationality or
\nwhich cultural origin you work with. It is very important to spend few times
\nstudying prior working onboard. What I believe is to adapt and to adjust.
\nThe interviewee expressed an opinion concerning culture shock. IE affirms that
\nculture shock is caused by misunderstanding or not knowing other cultures that
\ncauses confusion. In this sense, it depends on ones own personality and individual
\ncharacteristics and how to deal with it. IE shares the importance of adaptation and
\nadjustment with new cultures. Good interpersonal relationships can result in a
\nharmonious working environment where cooperation fully functions. However, the
\ninability to communicate, such as an inadequacy in the English language, leads to
\nconstraints both professionally and socially. In this conversation, IE expresses the
\nimportance of English in ship manning as a part of the human element; that this
\nelement is a main concern in the mixed-cultural environment.
\nExcerpt 3: the topic (sample nursing essay examples by the best nursing assignment writing service) is on how socio-cultural approach can effectively address safety
\noperations in the cross-cultural environment.
\nIR: What is your opinion about socio-cultural approach onboard ships?
\nIE: Human element is a center piece of (ee\u2026) every system onboard. It is major
\nelement that operates the ship. If you do not aware the aspect of human
\nelement\/socio-cultural background, it might be dangerous, or it can lead
\nmisinterpretation the order\u2026instruction. Therefore, socio cultural aspect of
\nhuman element has a big role to play and it is very important, indeed (hh.. yes)\u2026
\nIR: Do you think this approach is important? Share your opinion!
\nIE: Yes, it is important. Why? It will help in understanding amongst crews. Because
\nthat is a basic foundation in conducting any activities onboard. If there is
\n58
\nunderstanding in every activity, it will be very effective. We have leadership
\nonboard also, to be more adapt as well. \u2026.It helps crews to adapt themselves to
\nthe environment, leadership onboard, the way of working, the way of giving
\ninstruction to the crews, the way to motivating, to adapt within environment to
\ncorporate. To manage in productive way the crew onboard. As part of sociocultural study, the real of communication, (\u2026.) language is paramount. By
\nmeans every crew should know English as it is international language in
\nshipping.
\nExcerpt 4: The topic (sample nursing essay examples by the best nursing assignment writing service) is about the recommendation of socio-cultural guidelines by
\nIMO
\nIR: The term of IMO\u00b4s role, do you have any comment?
\nIE: Instead of SMCP, the only IMO can do is \u2026 giving some incentive for member
\nstates to improve the\u2026to advice the member states to emphasize the subject
\nof socio-cultural matter.
\nIR: In your opinion, is it needed to be regulated\/recommended by IMO?
\nIE: Well\u2026Not really as regulation. But recommendation. Such kind of advisory
\nguideline for cultural study (similar with SMCP). Advice to maritime institutions
\nto emphasize socio-cultural subject. Not really regulation, but advisory in term
\nof guideline. IMO gives an incentive to flag state to improve or to advice
\nmaritime institutions to establish socio-cultural study.
\nA Swedish crew member shared his viewpoints concerning IMO\u00b4s role:
\nIR: What is your opinion concerning IMO\u00b4s role through a socio-cultural
\neducation?
\nIE: Need to be regulated such as cultural training. …to reach the overall goal can
\nbe increased safety and reduce casualties. IMO should look into possible way.
\nImportant thing is cultural training. On how to learn cultural difference as a
\nsubject. When I was on training ship, we learn how to talk in radio but we
\nnever learn how to interpret the message. What they actually mean. In
\ndifferent culture, it can mean different something\u2026a lot of misunderstanding
\ncould not be avoided. It is important that training to be regulated because not
\neasy to skip the course in maritime institutions if they are not regulated. IMO
\nshould consider to be regulated this course.
\n59
\nIE emphasizes the importance of socio-cultural training that needs to be provided in
\nmaritime institutions. IE says that IMO should recommend a guideline similar to its
\nModel Courses 3.17 and 1.21 and\/or SMCP. IE gives an enthusiastic opinion. IE
\nstrongly agrees with that statement. Sometimes, IE stresses by using the word
\n\u201cwhy?\u201d to ensure IR that the issue of human element and socio-cultural approach
\nare obviously useful when addressing safe manning. During the conversation, IE
\nbelieves that communication skills and good leadership in the multicultural
\nenvironment are important, especially for those who have a function at the
\nmanagement level. As part of the non-technical skills, this approach is useful and
\napplicable in working onboard. The way IE expresses his viewpoints is supported
\nwith gestures and body language throughout. Once in a while, IE shows a serious
\nmimic too. Moreover, IE expresses broad insights about the cultural phenomenon
\nthat social and cultural approaches are relevant in multinational shipping nowadays.
\nIt may transform a positive impact on harmonizing working conditions onboard
\nships. From the interview, the IEs expressed their opinion that the approaches,
\nsocially and culturally, are important in multicultural and multilingual environment in
\norder to improve maritime safety.
\n5.5 Chapter conclusion
\nThe research and survey shows that the majority of respondents, both seafarers and
\nnon-seafarers, found several constraints within the cross-cultural environment, such
\nas communication, power distance, social interaction and humor, where the
\ndominant problem is the communication (language). In other words, to adapt and to
\nadjust with people from different nations and different countries are not easy tasks.
\nBoth seafarers and non-seafarers need to socialize in the multicultural environment
\nonboard ships as well as ashore. The conversations within seafarer respondents
\nare also transcribed in this chapter. Topic discussions concerning the issue of
\nmulticultural seafarers onboard ships. The interviewees express their opinions and
\ncomments related to usefulness of the socio-cultural approach to harmonize
\nseafarers working conditions; the roles of stakeholders in conducting this education
\nfor cadets\/seafarers and some respected issues are also expressed. Although they
\nhave different perspectives and opinions, their visions are obvious to address safety
\nonboard ships. The majority of respondents also see that cultural awareness,
\n60
\nhuman relations and social interactions are important. Therefore, they agree with the
\nidea that socio-cultural study is useful and should be provided in maritime
\ninstitutions in order to improve safety operations in multinational shipping. Related
\nparties including IMO and its member states should recommend a socio-cultural
\neducation in the maritime industry and issue a publication related to the subject as
\nfollow up to the successful 2010, Year of the Seafarer campaign.
\n61
\nCHAPTER 6
\nCONCLUSION AND STUDY RECOMMENDATIONS
\n\u201cHow wonderful that we have met with a paradox. Now we have some hope of
\nmaking progress\u201d.<\/p>\n
(Niels Bohr, 1885-1962)
\n6.1 Conclusion
\nThe rapid development in the shipping industry, mostly in the increasing number of
\nmerchant marine fleets, has affected the increasing demands on qualified seafarers
\nwhilst the number\/percentage of seafarers relative to the fleet number is in
\nimbalance. There is even a lack of qualified seafarers as many young people are not
\ninterested anymore in the seafaring profession. Solving this dilemma, the shipowners and employers seek seafarers not only of their own nationality, but also
\nother nationalities, to man their fleets. Therefore, there is more employment of
\nmultinational crews. Nowadays, many ships are manned with crews not only of one
\nnationality, but of several nationalities. Since different nationalities have different
\ncultures, there are consequences on manning the ship with multicultural crews, both
\npositive (benefits) and negative (disadvantages).
\nThe human factor (human element) and maritime safety are two interrelated major
\nconcerns in shipping. As an effect of multicultural manning, seafarers are required to
\nhave both technical and soft skill\/competences to maintain good working conditions
\nand safety onboard. Concerning this matter, MET institutions as the professional
\nseafarer resources providers are challenged to provide the seafarers with both skills,
\nas there is still no particular model course for the soft skills (yet).
\n62
\nReports have shown that casualties occur more often on ships manned by mixedcrews than operated by a single nationality. Human error has been claimed to be the
\nroot cause of such accidents, of which some are caused by communication failure.
\nHowever, this factor is not treated as a major priority of investigation by many official
\ninvestigators. The communication gap between the crews from different nationalities
\nstill exists due to the cultural adjustment problem (culture shock). Therefore, in the
\nmulticultural context, communication skills is an absolute skill. However, the solution
\nfor communication problems among multicultural crews are not only an adequate
\nliteracy in Maritime English, but also intelligence in cultural and human. A senses
\nwhich is the capability to adapt and to make adjustments in new diversified cultures.
\nThe majority of respondents in this survey affirmed that the companies (maritime
\ninstitutions) where they are serving have been requiring sufficient English literacy for
\nthe employee for sometime. The respondents are both seafarers and non-seafarers.
\nThis proves that English is being used as the common international language. As
\nmost of the companies are international companies, English was chosen to bridge
\nany differences (cultural) among the employees, who are from different nationalities
\nwith different cultures. By this means, it helps people (ship\u2019s crews) to interact within
\nthe mixed social community onboard.
\nHowever, some other respondents affirmed that their companies did not require very
\ngood English literacy for their employees, as long as they are able to work. In this
\ncase, English literacy is not an absolute requirement. They use another way to blend
\nin to the work situation onboard. For blending-in, they must be able to adapt
\nthemselves to the community by knowing the behavior of the community. This
\nmeans that cultural awareness is needed. \u201c\u2026Changes is situation over time require
\nproper situation awareness and corresponding adjustments of communication and
\nbehaviors\u201d (Koester & Sorensen, 2004, p. 226). Many Asian ratings (seafarers) do
\nnot have sufficient English literacy, but they can make good relationships and a
\ngood working environment with the other crew members from other nationalities
\nonboard. Thus, the socio-cultural approach is needed because it helps people to
\nunderstand and to adapt to other cultures. In other words, socio-cultural study can
\nnot be neglected as it helps to provide social skills and to improve the mental
\nframework that enables people to bridge the differences in the cross-cultural setting.
\n63
\nThe need for a socio-cultural study is supported by the fact that there are more
\nmulticultural seafarer employments and they still find many differences and gaps
\namong cultures, especially East and West. The different attitudes and behavior
\namong Eastern and Western crews consciously and unconsciously is reflected in
\nthe daily life at sea. In fact, it is not easy to deal with crews from different
\nnationalities and different cultures. Most people experience culture shock during
\nadaptation and adjustment to the multicultural environment.
\nIn general, seafarers found several challenges within multicultural crews, such as
\ncommunication, power distance and social interaction, as has been found in the
\nsurvey. The dominant problem is communication (language). Realizing the
\nconstraints, as social human beings, seafarers tend to socialize with their colleagues
\nin many possible occasions onboard. Relaxation time and a place where they can
\nshare time with other are needed. This is shown in the survey data. However, some
\npeople prefer to be alone after their work for certain reasons. Not all seafarers like to
\nsocialize after work. Therefore, in the multicultural context, to socialize with others is
\na personal need to avoid loneliness and alienation, at least. Being intelligent in the
\ncross-cultural environment can help people\/crew members to work with better
\ncollaboration in ship operations. Furthermore, a good and safe working situation
\nonboard, as well as the social relationship, also depends on good leadership. Good
\ncommunication skills and cultural intelligence supports good leadership in
\nmulticultural context. Good leadership reduces the negative impact of power
\ndistance among crews. If these challenges can be well managed, such as by
\nimproving the technical and non-technical skills, the benefits from the employment of
\nmulticultural crews will be optimal.
\nSocio-cultural awareness is important in the multinational environment. Sociocultural study helps seafarers in order to harmonize the working conditions and
\nimprove safety. A type of education in soft skills, such as international culture
\nknowledge, is needed. MET institutions, as the educated seafarer providers, hold an
\nimportant role in providing this type of education. In other words, maritime
\ninstitutions should conduct a socio-cultural course. However, a model course in
\nmulticultural subjects has not yet been provided by IMO.
\n64
\nSocio-cultural study is a wide and universal study which is not easy to implement in
\nMET institutions which are designed as places for maritime technical skill study.
\nTherefore, the practical curriculum in soft skills needs to be designed. As local MET
\ninstitutions are under the direction and supervision of their Maritime Administrations
\n(governments), the involvement of the administration in designing the curriculum on
\nthis subject is necessary. In this regard, the formulation of the curriculum refers to
\nthe guidelines as recommended by IMO. However, the guidelines have not yet been
\nprovided. Therefore, IMO should provide a recommendation for the guidelines on
\nthis issue. However, before issuing a recommendation on this issue, IMO requires
\nthe inputs and participation of each Maritime Administration. In other words,
\nfeedback and cooperation between Maritime Administrations and IMO is required.
\n6.2 Study recommendations
\nIn response to the conclusions, eight recommendations on the issues are discussed,
\nas follows:
\n1. The socio-cultural education is chosen as an appropriate solution in
\nmultinational shipping. This study emphasizes the cultural intelligence that
\nbenefits the human element in the maritime field. As the socio-cultural education
\nis universal and probably will be too complicated and take a large part of in the
\ncurriculum, the study may be minimized and emphasized on the basic
\nlanguages. This is also what has been applied at several international
\ninstitutions\/colleges and at WMU. The students are given a familiarization
\norientation of the local culture\/customs.
\n2. IMO should issue a publication related to socio-cultural study that could be a
\nguide at maritime institutions. Such an instrument can function to develop
\ncultural education for seafarers. Model courses 3.14 and 1.21 have been
\npublished, but details about cross-cultural and human skills are not included.
\nTherefore, a socio-cultural model course for maritime purposes is needed.
\n3. Maritime administrations should take the initiative to be pro-active in proposing
\nsocio-cultural education in MET institutions.
\n65
\n4. MET institutions should be pro-active to conduct education in non-technical
\nsubjects. A socio-cultural subject needs to be included in the curriculum.
\nMoreover, MET and related research organizations should be more active in
\nconducting further research in socio-cultural studies in the cross-cultural context.
\nExpertise and maritime experts\u2019 who are related to the field area should be
\nconsulted and included for further research.
\n5. Shipping companies and manning agencies should take the initiative to provide
\nshort course\/training related to cultures. This course should be conducted before
\nthe seafarer signs on a ship.
\n6. As language is the dominant human interaction barrier, the lecture hours of
\nMaritime English in the MET syllabus should be extended to non-English
\nspeaking countries. The assessment (passing grade) in this subject should also
\nbe stricter.
\n7. Students in MET institutions should be enriched with internationally known
\nlanguage knowledge other than English, such as Spanish and French, because
\nlanguage is one of the ways people can blend into another culture. The portion
\nfor this study has to be through glossaries and at least simple\/common
\nconversations. Students can learn further themselves.
\n8. Before joining a ship, a seafarer should be informed about the nationalities of the
\ncrew onboard. This can be known by providing the intended ship\u2019s crew list to
\nthe manning office. The manning office should then provide a short course
\nregarding the culture\/language of the nationalities of the onboard crew. The
\nlecturer of this short-course could be a former or active seafarer who has broad
\nexperience of sailing with the nationality. This aims to solve the problems of
\nculture shock, especially for the in-experienced\/fresh graduate seafarer.
\n66
\nCHAPTER 7
\nDISCUSSION
\n\u201cReality cannot be found except in one single source, because of the connection of
\nall things with one another\u201d.
\n(Leibniz, 1670)
\n7.1 Additional remarks
\nThe research on the issue of multicultural manning has been an attractive and
\nvaluable opportunity for the author who had has to deal with people from different
\ncultures and nationalities, especially when dealing with merchant seafarers. There
\nare still many other issues that can be the subject of research, related to culture and
\nhuman element, other than topic (sample nursing essay examples by the best nursing assignment writing service)s mentioned in this paper.
\nConcerning personal behavior, which seems to be a part of the mentality developed
\nby the culture, some seafarers complain about shipmasters and department heads
\n(Chief Officers or Chief Engineers) that always use abusive language, rather than
\ngiving wise and corrective directions, when minor mistakes or problems are made by
\ntheir sub-ordinates. This behavior is neither productive nor to be maintained. Due to
\nthe use of provocative words, other crew members living onboard of mixednationalities can react emotionally. The way people react depends upon several
\nfactors, such as their mental state as affected by their culture and religion, their
\npsychological condition and the working environment onboard. Some people take it
\neasily. However, others may take it seriously and it may become a more serious
\n67
\nproblem involving a person\u2019s life, either individually or collectively, based on
\nracial\/nationality groups. There are several incidents\/reports of shipmasters or
\ndepartment heads who were threatened, killed or thrown overboard by their subordinates due to their own behavior. This proves that social life is also an important
\nmatter in the safety of life. As has been mentioned earlier that one who is good in a
\nsocial group (culture) is not always good in another social group, people (seafarers)
\nneed to learn the behavior of people from other cultures to avoid misunderstandings
\nin conduct.
\nResearch on personnel cleverness or overconfidence could be an interesting one
\nrelated to safety matters. Onboard ships, various crews with different educational
\nbackgrounds meet each other. Related with culture and nationality, some crews
\nfrom certain nationalities are still thinking that they have a higher level of knowledge
\nor education compared with people from other countries. Therefore, they
\nunderestimate the other people and are overconfident themselves. This is also what
\ncan be found on board. Some crewmembers still underestimate their superordinates if they come from a country with a lower level of economy (third world).
\nThey sometimes think that they are cleverer than their super-ordinates, which is
\nshown by arguing or debating with the super-ordinate\u2019s orders, rather than giving
\ntheir opinions or ideas in a polite manner. Sometimes there are accidents, which are
\nnot officially reported, caused by the disobedience of a crewmember against his\/her
\nsuper-ordinate\u2019s orders\/instructions. The crewmember thinks that his way of work is
\nbetter than the instructions\/orders given by his super-ordinate because he thinks
\nthat he is \u201cmore experienced\u201d than his super-ordinate and he is from a country which
\nis \u201cmore civilized\u201d than his super-ordinate\u2019s country. However, the super-ordinate
\nhas given the instructions\/orders according to the correct procedures which are
\npossibly not known yet by the crewmember. This thought of overconfidence should
\nnot be brought into personnel mentality. Therefore, a study regarding the matter and
\nits effect on safety could be an interesting one.
\nThe research, recommendations and proposals concerning the issues of
\nmulticultural manning are not conducted for nothing. The experts have been carrying
\nout this research spending their time and expenses on the important purposes, i.e.
\nto contribute in the development of the maritime sector in general and to improve
\n68
\nmaritime a safety specifically, as well as to promote the seafaring profession as a
\nsafe, respected and promising profession. This is also to support the \u201c2010: Year of
\nthe Seafarers\u201d IMO initiative to be more realistic.
\n7.2 Further research
\nIn order to improve the human element, the need for a socio-cultural course such as
\nsoft skills should be emphasized within further research, as follows:
\n1. Identify the cultural constraints on deck and in the engine room.
\n2. The impact of cultural constraints on seafarers as well as solving the
\nproblems.
\n3. Fatigue versus culture.
\n4. Research on how seafarers spend their leisure time onboard.
\n5. Research on former seafarers who have been involved ashore and those
\nwho can not stand a seafaring career any longer.
\n7.3 Weaknesses of the current study
\nThe research on the issue of multicultural manning has been an attractive and
\nvaluable opportunity, as the author has had to deal with people from different
\ncultures and nationalities, especially merchant seafarers. The people involved in this
\nresearch have different visions of the seafaring profession and maritime sector.
\nEven though these visions and opinions are different, they are all intended for the
\nsame purpose, i.e. the better development of the maritime sector and safety.
\nHowever, there are several limitations found that have affected this research. The
\nstudy on this issue was limited by time, as the author only had 4 (four) months to
\ncomplete ambitions her task. This study required more time to find more chances
\ninto sailing surveillance in multinational shipping in order to obtain more evidence for
\nthe surveys findings. To cope with the limitations, the author took several reliable
\nwritten references\/literature which have been recognized internationally and
\nconsulted with the experts in this field.
\nThe data collecting has also had its limitation. The samples and interviewees can
\nnot be taken from all parts of the world. Although the participating respondents were
\n69
\nfrom different nationalities, this could still only be a relatively small sample.
\nHowever, the study from literature reviews integrated with one\u2019s own cultural
\nexperience could balance this limitation to present a better approach of the study.
\nAnother difficulty found during the survey was the difference of sensitive value in
\nevery culture. One which is good in one social group (culture) is not always good in
\nanother social groups. The value derived from a culture can not be used as the
\nstandard value to assess things in common. Therefore, the author emphasizes the
\nuse of common sense in relation with cultural diversity and the mixture in the global
\nmaritime industry.
\nNot being a seafarer and a non-native English user are barriers for the author. It is
\nnot easy to obtain samples from ships worldwide within a four-month period.
\nHowever, the multinational challenge has given opportunities both formal and
\ninformal to study the socio-cultural aspects in the maritime field framework. The
\nstudy of maritime affairs in MET specializations at WMU gave the motivation to
\nelaborate the study of socio-culture in the multinational and multicultural context.
\nHopefully, at least this may contribute something useful to maritime communities in
\norder to improve safety and the human element in shipping.
\n70
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\n0creativity.pdf.
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\n_be\/154069.html.
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78
\nAPPENDIX A
\nDIFFERENCES BETWEEN WESTERNERS AND ASIANS
\nWesterner Asian Westerner Asian
\n1. Opinion 2. Way of life
\n3. Contact 4. Anger
\n5. In the restaurant 6. Queuing when waiting
\n79
\nDIFFERENCES BETWEEN WESTERNERS AND ASIANS
\nWesterner Asian Westerner Asian
\n7. The boss 8. Handling the problem
\nMe
\n(Source: Armstrong , 2008)
\n80
\nAPPENDIX B
\nCULTURE SHOCK ADAPTATION AND ADJUSTMENT
\nWhat people can do to
\nsuccessfully transit through
\nCulture Shock
\nWhat friends can do to help culture shock
\nand adjustment?
\n1. Recognize anxieties-pinpoint
\nthe problems, needs and
\nconcerns.
\n2. Learn the new culture as soon
\nas possible. Be humble and
\nopen to learn good things.
\n3. Immediately begin establishing
\nrelationships with good friends.
\nMeet locals who can Help you
\nin your adjustment to this new
\nculture-build trust especially
\nwith people that are going to
\nhelp you.
\n4. Try new things gradually but
\npersistently. Do not let an initial
\nsetback stop you from trying
\nagain. When you fail, try again.
\nWe are not perfect.
\n5. Be flexible. Cultural adjustment
\nis hard work. Take time to rest
\nand reflect on your adjustment
\nexperience.
\n6. Participate in social events on
\nand off the campus to become
\nmore familiar with the host
\nculture and lifestyles.
\n1. We should be aware of the process of
\ncultural adjustment and culture shock.
\nShare that information with our
\ninternational friend as a form of
\nencouragement and reassurance. Most
\nincoming students are not aware of that
\nadjustment process.
\n2. We can become the cultural informant for
\nour international friend. Help explain how
\nthings work. Discuss our local idioms off
\nthe wall, I smell a rat, speak slowly.
\n3. Work at better understanding our
\ninternational friend\u2019s cultural background.
\nIt will not only provide topic (sample nursing essay examples by the best nursing assignment writing service)s for
\nconversation, but also sow we care
\nenough to engage in true cross cultural
\ndialogue.
\n4. Know the limits of your involvement
\nFinancial, academic or psychological
\nproblems should be directed to the right
\npeople who can help close friends,
\nadvisors or especially, to his or her pastor.
\n5. Do not always come across as the expert.
\nWork toward a relationship of equals. Allow
\nfor reciprocity in the relationship. It is easy
\nto always be the one giving. Allow our
\nfriends to invite us for tea, a meal, or a
\nmovie.
\n6. Be a good listener and ask questions.
\nTrust is the bridge for cross-culture
\ncommunication. Forgiveness as a life style;
\nLove and respect are the key.
\n(Source: Wikipedia, 2009)
\n81
\nAPPENDIX C<\/p>\n
Re : A request to the respondent
\nMalmo, \u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026.. 2010
\nDear Sir\/Madam,
\nI am a student at the World Maritime University, Malmo. As a requirement of the
\nacademic program (dissertation), I am carrying out research related with the
\nimportance of culture education\/familiarization for seafarers to improve the working
\nconditions and safety on board ships, especially on the ships manned with
\nmulticultural crews. This is also intended to better a seafarer\u2019s social life and safety
\non board ship.
\nDissertation title:
\n\u201cMultinational and Multicultural Seafarers and MET Students: A Socio-cultural
\nStudy for Improving Maritime safety and the Education of Seafarers\u201d
\nIn the attachment to this letter you will find a questionnaire. You are kindly solicited
\nto fill the questionnaire. Please answer each question by marking the tick box and
\nwrite your opinion if necessary. You may tick more than one box for one question,
\ndepending on your opinion. There is no right or wrong answer. Your data and
\nanswers will be kept strictly confidential and will not be mentioned specifically in the
\nreport. Your data\/answer is a part of global findings.
\nYour support and time in completing this questionnaire is very much appreciated. I
\nthank you very much for your cooperation and support.
\nSincerely yours,
\nDidin Alfiani Susetyo
\n82
\nAPPENDIX D
\nList of respondents that returned questionnaires
\nNo Nationalities Returned
\n1 Algerian 4
\n2 Argentine 1
\n3 Bahamian 2
\n4 Bahrain 2
\n5 Bangladeshi 1
\n6 Benin 1
\n7 British 4
\n8 Brazilian 1
\n9 Cape Verde 4
\n10 Chilean 2
\n11 Chinese 4
\n12 Colombian 1
\n13 Dutch 29
\n14 Egyptian 2
\n15 Ethiopian 2
\n16 Filipino 8
\n17 Ghanaian 4
\n18 Indian 4
\n19 Indonesian 19
\n20 Iranian 1
\n21 Iraqi 2
\n22 Italian 1
\n23 Japanese 3
\n24 Korean 10
\n25 Madagascar 3
\n26 Malaysian 1
\n27 Malawian 2
\n28 Mozambican 3
\n29 Myanmarese 3
\n30 Portuguese 5
\n31 Pakistani 2
\n32 Peruvian 2
\n83
\nList of respondents that returned questionnaires
\nNo Nationalities Returned
\n33 Russian 6
\n34 Senegalese 1
\n35 Sierra Leonean 3
\n36 Sri Langkan 1
\n37 Spanish 3
\n38 Swedish 9
\n39 Saudi Arabic 1
\n40 Syrian 2
\n41 Yemeni 1
\n42 Senegalese 1
\n43 Tanzanian 3
\n44 Thai 2
\n45 Tunisian 4
\n46 Turkish 3
\n48 Uruguaian 2
\n49 Vietnamese 6
\n50 Yemeni 1
\n51 Unknown 6
\nTotal number 188
\n84
\nAPPENDIX E
\nCONVERSATION TOPICS
\n(Seafarers)
\nDuration : \u2026\u2026\u2026
\n1. What is your opinion about a global culture?
\n2. Do you find any differences between crew members from West and East
\ncultures? If so, what are their differences?
\n3. Do you think that multinational crewing are challengeing onboard ships? Why?
\n4. Is leadership important? Give your opinion!
\n5. Do you find any difficulties or constraints dealing with mixed-crews onboard
\nship? If so, give your comment!
\n6. Do you think that socio-cultural education is useful to be taught for
\ncadets\/seafarers? Why do you say so?
\n7. What is your expectation(s) for cadets\/students in global shipping for future?
\n8. Should IMO recommend a socio-cultural publication? Why?
\nThank you very much for taking your time!
\n85
\nAPPENDIX F
\nQUESTIONNAIRE
\n(SEAFARERS)
\nName : \u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026
\nName of ship : \u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026
\nNationality : \u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026
\nAge : \u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026
\nReligion : \u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026
\n1. Have you sailed with multinational crews?
\nYes No
\n2. Was your company required sufficient English language both written and
\nspoken to you?
\nYes No
\n3. What language did you use to communicate onboard ship?
\nArabic English French Spanish Others
\n4. What does global culture mean to you?
\n\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026.
\n5. Did you find any differences between crew members from West and East
\ncultures?
\nYes No
\n6. If yes, what source of differences did you find?
\nBelief Culture food behavior Others
\n7. Did you find constraints and difficulties experience with mixed-crews?
\nYes No
\n8. If yes, which difficulties did you find?
\nLanguage Power distance Human relation Humor
\n9. Did you socialize with other mixed-crews after duties?
\nYes No
\n10. Human element is important in multinational and multicultural environment
\nonboard ship
\nStrongly agree Agree Not sure Disagree
\n11. In your opinion, are human relations and social interactions important?
\nYes No
\n12. Do you think socio-cultural approach can harmonize working environment?
\n86
\nYes No
\n13. Socio-cultural education is useful to helps seafarers dealing with mixed-crews
\nonboard ship.
\nStrongly agree Agree Not sure Disagree
\n14. Should socio-culture subject be included in curriculum?
\nYes No
\n15. MET institutions\/shipping company should conduct a socio-cultural course.
\nStrongly agree Agree Not sure Disagree
\n16. Should IMO issue a publication (similar with Model Course 3.17 or the SMCP)
\nrelated to socio-cultural subject.
\nStrongly agree Agree Not sure Disagree
\n17. Would you suggest other things related to the socio-cultural approach in
\nmultinational shipping?
\n\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026.
\nThank you for taking your time!
\n87
\nAPPENDIX G
\nQUESTIONNAIRE
\n(NON-SEAFARERS)
\nName : \u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026
\nNationality : \u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026
\nAge : \u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026
\nReligion : \u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026
\n1. Did your company require sufficient English language both written and spoken
\nto you?
\nYes No
\n2. What language did you use to communicate?
\nArabic English Spanish Others
\n3. What does global culture mean to you?
\n\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026.
\n4. Is Multinational and multicultural issues challenging in global shipping.
\nYes No
\n5. Is it easy to adapt and to adjust with multinational and multicultural
\nenvironment?
\nYes No
\n6. Did you experience any problems\/constraints dealing with other people from
\ndifferent countries?
\nYes No
\n7. If so, which constraints or difficulties did you meet?
\n\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026
\n8. Human relation and social interaction are needed.
\nStrongly agree Agree Not sure Disagree
\n9. Cultural intelligence and leaderships are useful to harmonize working condition
\nin cross-cultural environment.
\nStrongly agree Agree Not sure Disagree
\n10. Socio cultural approach improving maritime safety in multinational shipping?
\nStrongly agree Agree Not sure Disagree
\n11. Socio-cultural approach helps people to understand and to adapt with other
\ncultures.
\nStrongly agree Agree Not sure Disagree
\n88
\n12. Is socio-cultural education useful in order to improve maritime safety?
\nYes No
\n13. Should maritime institutions conduct a socio-cultural course?
\nYes No
\n14. Your government (Maritime Administration) should take initiative to provide
\npractical study\/curriculum for improving cultural awareness (social skills) and
\npropose it to IMO when possible.
\nStrongly agree Agree Not sure Disagree
\n15. Would you suggest other related issues in order to improve maritime safety?
\n\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026.
\nThank you for taking your time!
\n89
\nAPPENDIX H<\/p>\n
90
\n91
\n92
\nAPPENDIX I<\/p>\n
93
\n94
\n95<\/p>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"
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