960
\nJournal of Black Studies
\nVolume 40 Number 5
\nMay 2010 960-973
\n\u00a9 2010 The Author(s)
\n10.1177\/0021934708320135
\nhttp:\/\/jbs.sagepub.com
\nhosted at
\nhttp:\/\/online.sagepub.com
\nRasta Evolution
\nThe Theology of the Twelve
\nTribes of Israel
\nMonique Bedasse
\nUniversity of Miami
\nThis article is concerned with the evolution of the Rastafarian movement
\nthrough the specific example of the Twelve Tribes of Israel. It provides a
\nserious treatment of Rasta theology by delving into the details surrounding
\nthe ways in which Haile Selassie\u2019s divinity is conceptualized. Placing the
\nRastafarian movement within the context of African resistance in the New
\nWorld, it argues that as the movement evolves, it remains wedded to the
\nideals of Ethiopianism.
\nKeywords: Rasta; Rastafari; Rasta theology; Twelve Tribes of Israel; Rasta
\nevolution; Ethiopianism
\nBelief in the divinity of Haile Selassie is foundational to the Rastafarian
\nmovement. This is so despite the decentralized nature of the movement
\nand the existence of different mansions, such as the Twelve Tribes of Israel,
\nthe Bobo Shanti, and the Nyabinghi. Rastafarians believe that the Emperor
\nHaile Selassie is the 225th descendant of the throne of David, which represents, according to Ethiopian legend, the oldest throne in the world. The
\nunion between David\u2019s son Solomon and the Queen of Ethiopia, Makeda
\n(Queen of Sheba), brought about this lineage. The Kebra Nagast tells the
\nstory of Makeda traveling from Ethiopia to Jerusalem to see Solomon, of
\nwhose wisdom she had heard.1 Solomon and Sheba produced an offspring,
\nMenelik I, who was born in Ethiopia. As the story goes, Menelik I became
\nthe first King (out of the line of Judah) of Ethiopia. Haile Selassie I
\nbecomes royalty because he is a descendant of Menelik I, who is a direct
\ndescendant of King Solomon. The general consensus among Rastafarians is
\nthat the Christian churches of the West ignore the line of David because it
\nprovides a blatant link to Africa and \u201creconnects Africans to Biblical
\nhistory\u201d (Naphtali, 1999, p. 102). Haile Selassie\u2019s heritage and divinity are
\nundisputed within the movement. There is no doubt that Haile Selassie
\ncame to fulfill prophecy, and proof that he had come to gather Israel is
\nBedasse \/ Rasta Evolution 961
\nfound in the biblical book of Revelations, which proclaims, \u201cBehold, the
\nLion of the Tribe of Judah, the Root of David, hath prevailed. . .\u201d (Rev. 5:5,
\nKing James Version).
\nHowever, Rastafarian thought concerning Haile Selassie\u2019s direct relationship to Jesus Christ emerges as a controversial and multifaceted issue.
\nBeyond the point of his basic divinity, the question of exactly who the
\nEmperor Haile Selassie is represents a point of contention within the movement. An examination of the theological differences within Rastafari contribute much to the discourse on Rasta, not as a means of fostering division
\nbut, rather, in an attempt to promote greater understanding, to expose the
\ncomplexities within Rastafarian thought, and to correct the erroneous generalizations that have plagued scholarly works on the topic (sample nursing essay examples by the best nursing assignment writing service).
\nOne of the earliest scholarly works on Rastafari declares that all Rastas
\nsee Selassie as the living God (Nettleford, Smith, & Augier, 1960). Many
\nsubsequent works followed suit and perpetuated the idea that the
\nRastafarian faith was a monolithic one. As the movement evolved, however,
\nscholars began to recognize variance within Rastafarian thought and to
\nacknowledge significant group specificities (Homiak, 1985; Spencer,
\n1999). It became clear that the widespread notion that all Rastas saw Haile
\nSelassie as Christ returned did not ring true. Though his divinity remains at
\nthe core of all Rastafarian thought, there exist various interpretations concerning his precise relationship to Jesus Christ. The structure of the movement facilitates such variance, as Rasta constitutes an oral culture, with no
\nwritten constitution or book of rules. Additionally, the movement is a
\ndecentralized one. In his astute study of Rastafarian theology, William
\nDavid Spencer (1999) deduces that \u201cwithin Rastafari is a multiplicity of
\nfaith stances\u201d (p. xvii). Earlier works on Rastafari did not engage this heterogeneity, as they failed to acknowledge group specificities within
\nRastafari. Broad generalizations masked the complexities within the movement and prevented serious and nuanced treatments of Rastafari as a faith.
\nThe present enterprise offers a case study of one particular Rastafarian
\ngroup, the Twelve Tribes of Israel. The Twelve Tribes of Israel, the largest
\ncentralized Rasta group, with members across the island of Jamaica as well
\nas a significant international following, provides an engaging look at the
\ndynamics of one specific Rastafarian group, with special emphasis on its
\nreligious doctrine. The organization is presented as a group that is unique
\nin some ways while sharing much with the wider movement.
\nThe Twelve Tribes of Israel, which was founded in Kingston, Jamaica,
\nin 1968, now boasts branches in numerous territories outside of Jamaica.
\nThese include Ethiopia, Ghana, Kenya, Sierra Leone, England (London
\nand Manchester), Germany, Sweden, California, New York, Barbados,
\nGrenada, St. Vincent, Trinidad, Tobago, Guyana, Australia, and New
\nZealand. The present study is limited to Jamaica, where the group was
\nfounded and where its official headquarters, from which every other
\nbranch takes its lead, remains.
\nThe Twelve Tribes was founded by Vernon Carrington, also known as
\nGadman, the Prophet, Brother Gad, Gad, or Prophet Gad. Brother Gad is
\nundeniably autonomous. This means that \u201chis pronouncements are the
\nfinal word on any matter [and that] he is the vital force of the movement\u201d
\n(Barrett, 1997, p. 232). Believing that they are the children of Israel, of
\nwhom the Bible speaks, Brother Gad is hailed as one of the great prophets
\nof Israel (in keeping with the Biblical tradition) by members of the Twelve
\nTribes. In his work titled The Twelve Tribes of Israel: Rasta and the Middle
\nClass, Frank Jan Van Dijk (1988) also finds that Gadman\u2019s authority in the
\nTwelve Tribes is unquestioned due to the belief that his presence is thought
\nto fulfill divine prophecy.
\nIn keeping with the orality of Rastafari, the Twelve Tribes places great
\nemphasis on the words uttered by the Prophet Gad. There is a general feeling among the members that Brother Gad \u201cspeaks in parables\u201d and is not
\neasily understood. The idea that he is a vessel through which the divine
\nword emanates is common.2 There is a certain mystique surrounding the
\nprophet\u2019s persona and the reverence he inspires from his members. The prevailing attitude of the members of the Twelve Tribes toward Gadman is a
\ncombination of profound respect and adoration. The dominant belief that he
\nis \u201cgifted\u201d and \u201csent to do the work\u201d inspires unabated loyalty.
\nThe importance of leadership to the process of evolution in the Twelve
\nTribes cannot be exaggerated, due to the unrivaled power that Gadman
\nholds. Though the Twelve Tribes has an executive body, all decisions are
\nmade by Gadman. He is not generally expected to explain his decisions to
\nthe executive body, and sometimes they are no more informed than the
\ngeneral body of members. For example, in 1987, Gadman decided to suspend the usual activities of the Twelve Tribes. Ten years after he called for
\nthis break, Gadman granted his first and only radio interview to Andrea
\nWilliams Greene (1997) in an episode of Running African. He explained
\nthat the Twelve Tribes \u201cwas organizing for years and keeping a lot of meetings, so we take [sic] a break, a rest.\u201d. Interestingly, the members of the
\nexecutive body seemed no more informed than the general body of
\nmembers, and they also waited for the day when Gadman would allow normal activities to resume. The belief that Gadman leads through divine
\ninspiration seals the perception that he should be allowed the freedom to
\n962 Journal of Black Studies
\nBedasse \/ Rasta Evolution 963
\nact unquestioningly. Many hesitate to criticize the Prophet, of whom they
\nare extremely protective. As many speeches and songs written in his honor
\nattest, Gadman is hailed as a very special person who has been sent by God
\nto do great things on earth. Almost all Twelve Tribes\u2013related invitations or
\nflyers for the organization\u2019s events bear the words Long live the Prophet
\nGad. The words of a song titled \u201cProphet Gad,\u201d which is performed by
\nOrthodox Issachar (2001) and produced on the official record label of the
\nTwelve Tribes (Orthodox Muzik), are quite telling. Orthodox Isaachar
\nsings,
\nFrom 1968 Gadman do [sic] his best for you
\nFrom 1968 the Prophet Gad do [sic] his best for you
\nIn the way he loves us we should be loving him too
\nWhen he got that vision he never keep [sic] it to himself
\nHe invites us to this great and marvelous work . . .
\nHe said read your Bible a chapter a day . . .
\nAs Christ feeds the multitude Gadman feeds and teach [sic] us too.
\nThe parallel drawn between Gadman and Christ shows the high esteem in
\nwhich he is held.
\nYet, though Gadman\u2019s position in the Twelve Tribes reveals a case of
\nepistemological authoritarianism, there are still traces of the epistemological individualism that characterizes the wider movement. The only rule in
\nthe Twelve Tribes that is widely known and observed is the directive of
\nGadman that members should read their Bibles a chapter a day in order to
\nfind the truth for themselves. Gadman\u2019s leadership is best described as
\ncharismatic, which means that he is powerful, with attributes that his followers admire, but his approach is not totalitarian.
\nThe generally acepahalous nature of the wider movement often masks the
\nsignificance of leaders within Rastafari. The cases of the early leaders of
\nRastafari\u2014Howell, Hinds, Hibbert, and Dunkley\u2014have been recounted
\noften. But the dynamics of leadership in the contemporary manifestations of
\nRasta have not been fully explored. The Twelve Tribes of Israel, the Bobo
\nShanti, and the followers of the Claudius Henry church are the exceptions in
\na movement where centralization and sustained leadership have long been
\nresisted. But as Barry Chevannes (1990) points out, \u201cThe lack of central leadership should not allow us to gloss over the presence and role of leaders\u201d in
\nRastafari (p. 145). It is true that Howell, Hinds, Hibbert, and Dunkley were
\nall believed to \u201chave heroic, if not divine abilities\u201d (Chevannes, 1990, p. 145).
\nKing Immanuel of the Bobo Shanti falls neatly into this pattern, as he is
\n964 Journal of Black Studies
\nthought to occupy a third of the holy trinity, and so does Gadman, who is
\nthought to be divinely inspired, though to a slightly lesser extent.
\nGadman\u2019s powerful role in the organization demands that leadership be
\nseriously considered in any discussion of the theological grounding of the
\nTwelve Tribes. Frank Jan Van Dijk (1988), in specific reference to the
\nTwelve Tribes of Israel, asserts that \u201call agree that Selassie is the second
\nand final coming of Christ\u201d (p. 7). This is untrue in light of the current
\ndebate within the Twelve Tribes concerning the role of Haile Selassie and
\nthe official doctrine of the group. The lack of a document espousing the
\nbeliefs of the group, coupled with the Prophet\u2019s propensity to place interpretation in the domain of the individual, has prevented homogeneity
\nwithin the Twelve Tribes. The organization is undergoing an unprecedented
\nsurge of questioning as its members seek clarification of the group\u2019s stance
\nconcerning the identity of Haile Selassie. The current state of the group
\nindicates that Van Dijk\u2019s conclusion in 1988 is not currently representative
\nof the Twelve Tribes.
\nThe Twelve Tribes of Israel generally accepts Jesus Christ and believes
\nin the authenticity of the Holy Bible. The most obvious evidence of this is
\nthe traditional greeting of the organization, which has been used since its
\ninception at every gathering and function. It begins, \u201cGreetings in the
\nname of our divine lord and savior Jesus Christ who has been revealed to
\nus in the personality of His Imperial Majesty Emperor Haile Selassie.\u201d Yet
\nthe role of Haile Selassie in relation to Jesus Christ is currently being
\ndebated within the organization. There are basically two different viewpoints: on one hand, those who believe that Haile Selassie is the final
\nChrist who represents the second advent of Jesus Christ and, on the other
\nhand, those who see Haile Selassie as one who embodies the spirit of Jesus
\nChrist and is the representative of Christ\u2019s throne on earth but not the second advent of Christ. For the former, Haile Selassie is seen as the living
\nGod, the final Christ of which the Bible speaks. The latter maintains that
\nwhile Haile Selassie and Christ represent the same spirit, they are not of
\nthe same flesh.
\nThis debate within the Twelve Tribes was triggered by Gadman\u2019s
\nresponses to the interviewer during the 1997 radio interview. The interview
\nmarked a significant moment in the history of the Twelve Tribes because it
\nrepresented the first time the leader definitively and officially espoused the
\ntheological position of the group. The following exchange took place
\nbetween the Prophet and Andrea Williams Green, the interviewer:
\nInterviewer: The Twelve Tribes is seen as closer to Christianity than other
\nRastafarian groups. Is there a basic difference in doctrine?
\nProphet Gad: Yes there is a basic difference because we see Christ, and
\nthat die and rose again, and that die for our sin, we see that person. So
\nthat is, you know, a different teaching, because is not many see this
\nteaching, that Christ is the person.
\nInterviewer: Recently we\u2019ve had much debate on this program, Running
\nAfrican, and other programs about the divinity of His Majesty the
\nEmperor Haile Selassie as it relates to the return of Jesus Christ. What
\nare your thoughts on the matter?
\nProphet Gad: Well, Christ is to return and sit on the Throne of David, so
\nI strongly believe that, you know, Christ is going to come and sit on
\nthe Throne of David.
\nInterviewer: You said something very potent here and something that may
\ndisturb the Rastafarian movement in Jamaica. Christ? You\u2019re talking
\nabout the return of Christ?
\nProphet Gad: Yes, I am talking about the return of Christ who is going to
\nsit on the Throne of David.
\nInterviewer: Are you making a differentiation between Jesus Christ and
\nHaile Selassie?
\nProphet Gad: Yes I am making a differentiation, because Christ the same
\nyesterday, today and forever. And even after His Majesty say he saved
\nnot by the man character but by the blood of Jesus Christ.
\nHere, the interviewer obfuscates the issue by stating that the debate concerns the \u201cdivinity of His Majesty the Emperor Haile Selassie.\u201d The word
\ndivinity fails in this context, because whether or not Haile Selassie is divine
\nis not the issue under debate; belief in his divinity remains secure. What is
\nbeing debated is the exact relationship of the emperor to Jesus Christ. In
\nother words, what is his real position as it relates to scripture? Though
\nGadman makes a \u201cdifferentiation between Jesus Christ and Haile Selassie,\u201d
\nthis does not mean that he no longer considers His Imperial Majesty to be
\ndivine. Some members believe that a distinction between Jesus Christ and
\nHaile Selassie I was not made initially by the Prophet and that such a distinction threatens the emperor\u2019s divine status. In his book on the Twelve
\nTribes doctrine, influential Twelve Tribes member Karl Phillpotts Naphtali
\n(1999) recognizes that there have been \u201cnew developments in the clarification of our doctrine in accordance with the Bible.\u201d But he points out that
\nthese developments \u201cin no way deny the divine anointing or Messianic personage of His Imperial Majesty, Emperor Haile Selassie I\u201d (p. 125).
\nAccording to the Prophet, Haile Selassie does not represent the second
\nand final advent of Christ. In other words, Haile Selassie is not Jesus Christ
\nBedasse \/ Rasta Evolution 965
\n966 Journal of Black Studies
\nreturned. Instead, it is the spirit of Christ that is within Haile Selassie. So
\nHaile Selassie and Jesus Christ share the same spirit but different flesh.
\nThis teaching, for which the Prophet provides biblical evidence, contradicts
\nthe beliefs of many Rastafarians. A Prominent non\u2013Twelve Tribes Rastafarian,
\nDouglas R. A. Mack (1999), an elder in the wider movement, declares that
\none of the \u201cbasic concepts\u201d held sacred by Rastafarian brethren is that
\n\u201cH.I.M. Emperor Haile Selassie I of Ethiopia is the returned Messiah, the
\nGod Head, the Ancient of Days\u201d (p. 51). In support of this, Barbara Makeda
\nLee (1981), a Rastafarian scholar, notes that \u201cthe worship of Selassie I as
\nthe returned Messiah, is held as a basic tenet of Rastafarian faith\u201d (p. 13).
\nAlso, Leonard Howell, considered by many to be the first man to preach
\nRastafari, was a strong proponent of the view that Haile Selassie I is the
\nreturned Messiah. The pervasiveness of this view within Rastafari generally
\nexplains why the Prophet sees the Twelve Tribes as a Rasta organization
\nthat provides a \u201cdifferent teaching.\u201d
\nThe Prophet Gad teaches that man can be saved by no other name but by
\nthat of Jesus Christ, recognizing that though Haile Selassie is indeed divine,
\nhe is really the custodian of the Davidic throne on earth, as \u201cthe scepter
\nshall not depart from Judah, nor a lawgiver from between his feet until
\nShiloh come, and unto him shall the gathering of the people be\u201d (Acts
\n1:11). In his commentary on the doctrine of the Twelve Tribes and the contributions of the Prophet Gad, Karl Phillpotts Napthali (1999) explains that
\nin the same way that Christendom has been
\nguilty of ignoring this everlasting promise contained in the Davidic Covenant
\nand its legitimate representative, His Imperial Majesty Emperor Haile
\nSelassie I and the Royal Family, so too, are many exponents of the doctrine
\nof Rastafari guilty of ignoring the significance and importance of Jesus
\nChrist. . . . Doctor Vernon Carrington Gad, the founder of the Twelve Tribes
\nof Israel organization, is an exception. Through his teachings new light and
\nunderstanding has been brought to the doctrine of Rastafari. (p. 106)
\nThe idea that Haile Selassie is not the returned Messiah is supported by
\na very literal interpretation of biblical passages. The Emperor could not be
\nthe returned Messiah because it is expected that the same Christ who
\nwalked on earth and was crucified will return in \u201clike manner.\u201d The biblical passage that speaks to this says, \u201cYe men of Galilee, why stand ye gazing up into heaven? This same Jesus, which is taken from you into heaven,
\nshall so come in like manner as ye have seen him go into heaven\u201d (Acts
\n1:11). It is expected that Christ will return not as a baby and not born of a
\nwoman, as was Haile Selassie, but as a man. Napthali explains,
\nBedasse \/ Rasta Evolution 967
\nDavid in a vision acknowledged Jesus as the Lord (master) Messiah even
\nbefore Jesus was born. Jesus is not in the same category as the other anointed
\nkings, priests, and prophets of Israel (Messianic personages). He is the Lord
\nMessiah. All the other Kings on David\u2019s throne were and are a shadow of him
\nwho is to come. (p. 126)
\nThis reinforces the idea that Haile Selassie, who sits as a king on David\u2019s
\nthrone, is not synonymous with Jesus Christ. Another song by Orthodox
\nIssachar, called \u201cWe Are Called,\u201d sums up the current teaching of the
\nTwelve Tribes as presented by Brother Gad. Issachar sings,
\nWe are call[ed] by Selassie I name
\nIt\u2019s a precious name worthy to be praised O lord
\nWe are saved through Jesus Christ name
\nIt\u2019s a name above all names a holy name
\nThese lyrics show that Orthodox Isachaar is making a distinction between
\nJesus Christ and Haile Selassie I. In his \u201cmessianic personage,\u201d Haile
\nSelassie I \u201ccall[s],\u201d as opposed to Jesus Christ, who \u201csave[s].\u201d
\nImportantly, there is opposition to this position within the Twelve
\nTribes. There are those who believe that when the Prophet made a distinction between Haile Selassie and Jesus Christ in his 1997 interview, he had
\nmade a shocking and abrupt departure from what they had perceived the
\ndoctrine of the Twelve Tribes to be. These members maintain that a distinction between Haile Selassie and Jesus Christ has never been made.
\nGary Virgo, who joined the organization in 1976, strongly believes that a
\ndrastic shift has occurred in the Twelve Tribes, taking the emphasis away
\nfrom Haile Selassie and placing it on Jesus Christ. Virgo insists that there
\nhas been a \u201cparadigm shift . . . like they\u2019re shifting back to church.\u201d He
\nmaintains that the position of the Twelve Tribes has always been that
\n\u201cSelassie I was Christ returned in his second advent\u201d (G. Virgo, personal
\ncommunication, July 2001).
\nAnother member who was deeply angered by the Prophet\u2019s 1997 interview contends that there has definitely been a radical change. His disappointment stems from what he considers to be a shift from the ideals that
\nled him to join the Twelve Tribes in the 1970s. For him, the change is \u201cmore
\ndealing with religion and preaching of religion.\u201d This he finds problematic
\nbecause for him, Rasta transcends the concept of religion, as Rasta is a
\n\u201cway of life.\u201d Furthermore, he resented what he considered to be an emphasis
\non Jesus Christ, because \u201cJesus Christ is a White man.\u201d He argues that
\nthough the Twelve Tribes always talked about Jesus, his understanding was
\nthat \u201cJesus was supposed to be equal to Selassie\u201d (J. Miller, personal communication, July 2001).
\nYet even though there are currently two antagonistic views concerning
\nHaile Selassie, the issue is much more complex than it first appears. Many
\nof those who, like the Prophet, make a distinction between Haile Selassie
\nand Jesus Christ admit that they had originally thought of Haile Selassie as
\nthe Almighty and as the second advent of Christ. They attribute the change
\nin their outlook to their own spiritual development or evolution, many of
\nthem using the term progressive revelation to describe the process by which
\nthey moved from one interpretation to the next. James, a member of the
\nexecutive body who joined the Twelve Tribes in 1973, admits that he initially thought Haile Selassie was the Almighty, until he evolved and came
\nto grasp the interpretation he now holds as true. James admits that through
\nhis own personal evolution he came to understand that \u201cJesus Christ could
\nnot be of the body of Emperor Haile Selassie . . . because it would contradict a lot of the scriptures because Jesus Christ would not take to himself
\nagain with human nature.\u201d James admits that in the early years, Haile
\nSelassie was \u201cso dominant in our thinking\u201d that he did not stop to really
\nunderstand \u201chow it really manifests in that we should be clear that they are
\ntwo different bodies . . . sameness in spirit and thought in God, but two different bodies\u201d (J. Thomas, personal communication, July 2001).
\nBarbara, who has been a member since 1972, also admits that her interpretation changed over time. Barbara maintains, \u201cAt first when I joined the
\norganization I would hear the brethren say, \u2018Haile Selassie God Almighty,
\nGod Almighty!!\u2019 I really thought he was God almighty. But the teaching
\nthat I get from the prophet, he is not\u201d (B. Davis, personal communication,
\nJune 2001). The change in Barbara\u2019s outlook came \u201ca couple years after\u201d
\njoining the organization.
\nSimilarly, Sangie, another member of the executive body, also got the
\n\u201cfull clarity of everything a couple years ago.\u201d He admits that he \u201chad
\nwanted to reject the Christ\u201d of the mainstream church, but a deeper understanding of the Bible, coupled with his trust in the Prophet, led him to
\nunderstand that Haile Selassie was not actually the second advent of Christ
\n(S. Davis, personal communication, June 2001).
\nThe responses from these members demonstrate the importance of looking at the Twelve Tribes within the context of evolution. The 1997 interview,
\nwhich represented the only time that the Prophet spoke definitively about a
\nTwelve Tribes doctrine, ushered in a period of ebullient debate. The Prophet\u2019s
\nclarification led to varied responses, ranging from outraged individuals who
\n968 Journal of Black Studies
\nBedasse \/ Rasta Evolution 969
\nwere livid enough to abandon the organization to those who welcomed any
\nwords of wisdom from their trusted spiritual leader. That some feel
\ndeceived by the Prophet\u2019s interpretation of the doctrine, coupled with the
\nprogressive revelation that many members received over time, raises the
\nissue of whether the Prophet also underwent a process of evolution. Perhaps
\nhis insistence that members should read the Bible a chapter a day in order
\nto gain their own truth was his way of directing his followers to an interpretation that he had always held. Angela Heron, another prominent member
\nof the Twelve Tribes, argues that what some people perceive to be a change
\nin outlook and a move toward Christianity \u201cis not new.\u201d She asserts that
\nduring the early years, \u201cthe focus was Black\u201d and \u201cwe chose not to see.\u201d For
\nHeron, Gadman\u2019s unprecedented interview was timely in that as a true
\nprophet, he reveals the right message to his followers at the opportune time.
\nShe believes that
\nin 1969, he could not have sent that message because it would not have been
\nreceived because people were just looking for Black Power. . . . I think now,
\nwhen he came out with the interview 4 years ago, after almost 30 years as an
\norganization, we realize that the solution to Black people\u2019s problems is not a
\nBlack answer. One has to be Black conscious. . . . But, in terms of the solution to man\u2019s problem, the problem of mankind, it has to be Christ and it has
\nto be something that transcends color because the problem encompasses not
\njust Black people but people of all races. I think Brother Gad came out with
\nwhat he came out at a time when he felt that it would have been received.
\nIt was obviously received by some and not by others. (A. Heron, personal
\ncommunication, June 2001)
\nHere, Heron links the evolution of the organization to its larger social
\nand historical context. The Twelve Tribes began to take shape in 1968, amid
\nthe revolutionary fervor of the 1960s. During this period, the Rastafarian
\nmovement was at the forefront of Jamaican radicalism and Black consciousness. This Black consciousness meant an interest in and the intermingling of the ideas of Rasta, Black Power (as it was unfolding in the United
\nStates), and an engagement with the African continent. Still, all forms of
\nBlack radicalism in Jamaica were subsumed under the title \u201cBlack Power\u201d
\nduring this period. Her point here is that though the Twelve Tribes always
\nspoke of Jesus Christ, greater emphasis was placed on Rasta’s connection
\nto a potent Black nationalism, than to a conceptualization of the relationship between Haile Selassie and Jesus Christ that \u201ctranscends color.\u201d Many
\nof the Twelve Tribes members, like Heron, who were students at the
\nUniversity of the West Indies during this time, were actively involved in
\n970 Journal of Black Studies
\nwhat came to be known as the Black Power movement in Jamaica. Their
\nconsciousness took them from a Rasta-influenced Black Power into the
\nnewly formed Twelve Tribes. Heron taps into very important issues that run
\nthrough the responses of many of the members who reject Gadman\u2019s clarification\u2014the idea that this shift represents a conservative turn that is far
\nmore accommodating of a mainstream, Eurocentric Christianity.
\nStill, other members maintain that the Prophet has not changed and that
\nthose who claim that the Prophet has shifted the focus from His Imperial
\nMajesty to Jesus Christ are those who are not reading the Bible for themselves. Ann-Marie, who joined the organization in 1973, is a proponent of
\nthis view. According to her, Brother Gad \u201cnever changed,\u201d and she asserts
\nthat the rift is a natural occurrence because Israel has always been a \u201cstiffnecked nation\u201d (A. Witter, personal communication, June 2001). By this,
\nAnn-Marie means that the children of Israel (as presented in the Old
\nTestament of the Bible) have always been stubborn people. Ann-Marie is
\nless concerned about the issue than members such as Gary, who argues that
\nit is a \u201cserious matter [because] we have brethrens and sisters who have
\ndied accepting what I still accept today because that is what Twelve Tribes
\nwas saying!\u201d (G. Virgo, personal communication, July 2001)
\nThe role of leadership has featured prominently in this discussion due to
\nthe group\u2019s dependence on the Prophet Gad for guidance and instruction.
\nWith Gadman holding the right to determine the tenets of the organization,
\nthe members of Twelve Tribes have sought guidance from him. This is not
\ngenerally representative of the wider movement. However, as the rift regarding Haile Selassie\u2019s identity reveals, elements of the individual autonomy (the
\n\u201cI-an-I\u201d factor) that is characteristic of the wider movement have not been
\nabsent from the group.3 The existing rift emerged only after Gadman publicly
\nand unequivocally presented the group\u2019s definitive doctrine in 1997.
\nThe conflict bears great significance, because whether or not the Prophet
\nalways had the same view, it is obvious that many members, including
\nsome prominent individuals, had previously believed that Haile Selassie
\nwas indeed the Almighty God and the second coming of Christ. It is important to note that what may be referred to as a period of unrest in the Twelve
\nTribes is occurring while the organization is \u201con rest.\u201d When interviewed in
\n2001, some members hoped to gain further clarification from the Prophet
\nin the future, when the usual activities of the organization were resumed.
\nGadman\u2019s passing on March 22, 2005, disallows them such an opportunity.
\nThe life of the beloved Gadman was celebrated in a service held at the
\nheadquarters of the Twelve Tribes in Kingston, Jamaica. In true Twelve
\nTribes fashion, music was the main vehicle through which the members
\nfrom Jamaica and around the world, donning their red, gold, and green banners, paid tribute to their spiritual leader.4 But what does his passing mean
\nfor the future of the Twelve Tribes of Israel?
\nThe future holds the answer to important and intriguing questions concerning the continued evolution of the Twelve Tribes of Israel. The death of
\nthe Prophet Gad represents a highly significant event in the group\u2019s history. How
\nwill the organization survive the Prophet\u2019s death? As he has not officially
\nappointed a successor, the executive body has assumed the responsibilities of
\nleadership. But how will the executive committee replace such a charismatic
\nleader, who was believed to be gifted and inspired by God? Furthermore,
\nhow will the two dissenting opinions reconcile their differences when the
\norganization officially reconvenes? These questions remain unanswered for
\nnow, but those who embrace Gadman\u2019s clarification believe that his legacy
\nwill paint him as the one who \u201cbrought Rastafarian doctrine in line with the
\nfull teachings of the Holy Bible\u201d (Naphtali, 1999, p. 123).
\nHaving examined the theology of the Twelve Tribes of Israel, it is clear
\nthat the organization, not unlike the wider movement, is a \u201cmutating body
\nof thought\u201d (Spencer, 1999, p. xvi). The evolution of this group reflects an
\nattempt to reconcile Rasta teachings not only with the Bible but with certain historical realities, such as the death of Haile Selassie.5 This should
\ncome as no surprise, as the group is a mere 40 years old. The Rastafarian
\nmovement in general, which is slightly 2 times the age of the Twelve
\nTribes, is still quite young in terms of developing a theology. So-called
\nmainstream religions have had hundreds of years to develop, evolve, branch
\noff into sects, and adapt to societal changes. The propensity of some
\nresearchers of Rastafari to demand an immediate and \u201csystematic theology\u201d
\n(Boyne, 1995) from Rastafari is both misplaced and unfair. Furthermore,
\nthe demand for a \u201csystematic theology\u201d ignores the strength of Rasta as a
\nnew religion by using mainstream Christianity as the prism through which
\nthe movement should be analyzed. As Rex Nettleford (1998) astutely
\nobserves, Rasta \u201ctheology\u201d is about \u201ctaking the discourse into intellectual
\nlandscapes beyond narrow theological hermeneutics and exegesis, whose
\nmethods are considered \u2018Christian-specific\u2019 and predetermined in that tradition\u201d (p. 313). Though Prophet Gad\u2019s recent doctrinal clarification renders the Twelve Tribes the Rasta group closest to Christianity, it must never
\nbe forgotten that the Twelve Tribes departs from so-called mainstream
\nChristian churches in its continued recognition of the divinity of Haile
\nSelassie. Even with their attempt to reconcile biblical scripture with Rasta
\nbeliefs, Ethiopianism remains the root of their faith. Through the Davidic
\nBedasse \/ Rasta Evolution 971
\nCovenant, they continue to nurture an African-centered reading of the
\nBible, which constitutes a major departure from the Christian churches of
\nthe West. For the Twelve Tribes, Ethiopia is the missing link that churches
\nrefuse to see, because it connects Africans to biblical history.
\nIt is yet to be determined how the wider Rastafarian movement will view
\nthe Twelve Tribes in light of the recent doctrinal clarification. Will this create
\na chasm between the Twelve Tribes and the wider movement? On the other
\nhand, as the cry for the unification of Rasta intensifies and rallies around the
\nissue of repatriation, will these conflicts (within the Twelve Tribes and
\nbeyond) become less important? As for the wider Jamaican society, is this the
\n\u201csystematic theology\u201d that some non-Rastafarians have demanded? Even in
\nthe midst of these questions, however, it is unlikely that the rift will destroy
\nthe Twelve Tribes. The 21st century bears witness to Rastafarians (Twelve
\nTribes and non\u2013Twelve Tribes alike) who remain wedded to the consciousness that spawned the movement\u2019s genesis. They are rooted in the ideals of
\nEthiopianism, Garveyism, and Afrocentricity that form the pillars of Rastafari.
\nIn the final analysis, even as the Twelve Tribes evolves and solidifies its position as a faith that is grounded in the Christian tradition, its status as a new
\nreligion created by Africans in the New World remains intact. Its roots are
\nstill located in the rich history of African resistance to European oppression.
\nThe theology of the Twelve Tribes is deeply connected to the experiences of
\nenslavement and colonialism that inspired a long tradition of Africanized
\nChristianity in Jamaica and across the diaspora.6
\nNotes
\n1. The Kebra Negast, or Glory of Kings, reveals the history of the union between Solomon
\nand Sheba and is considered the history of Ethiopia\u2019s royal family.
\n2. Word is used here to mean word or message of God.
\n3. For more on the significance of the \u201cI-an-I\u201d concept to Rasta philosophy, see Adrian
\nAnthony McFarlene (1998).
\n4. Music has always played a tremendously important role in the Twelve Tribes. Many
\nfamous reggae singers, including Bob Marley, were members of this group, and music was
\ncrucial to the process by which they gathered members in the 1970s. For more, see Monique
\nBedasse (2002).
\n5. Many Rastafarians reject the idea that Haile Selassie is dead. Yet as the movement
\nevolves, they are forced to deal with his physical absence. For a detailed discussion of the
\nnotion of death within Rastafarian thought, see Spencer (1999).
\n6. The propensity of Jamaicans to Africanize Christianity has been recounted often with
\nworks that have examined traditions such as Myalism, Pukumina, Revival, and Native Baptist.
\n972 Journal of Black Studies
\nReferences
\nBarrett, L. (1997). The Rastafarians. Boston: Beacon.
\nBedasse, M. (2002). Rasta evolution: the Twelve Tribes of Israel in transition. Master\u2019s thesis,
\nCornell University, Ithaca, NY.
\nBoyne, I. (1995, December 10). Rastas need systematic theology. Sunday Gleaner, p. 1D.
\nChevannes, B. (1990). Rastafari: Towards a new approach. New West Indian Guide, 64, 127-148.
\nHomiak, J. (1985). \u201cThe ancient of days\u201d: Seated Black. Eldership, oral tradition and ritual in
\nRastafari culture. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Brandeis University, Ann Arbor, MI.
\nIssachar, O. (2001). Prophet Gad. Great and marvelous [CD]. Kingston, Jamaica: Orthodox
\nMuzik.
\nMack, D. R. A. (1999). From Babylon to Rastafari: Origin and history of the Rastafarian
\nmovement. Chicago: Frontline Distribution International.
\nMakeda Lee, B. (1981). Rastafari: The new creation. Kingston, Jamaica: Jamaica Media
\nProduction.
\nMcFarlene, A. A. (1998). The epistemological significance of \u201cI-an-I\u201d as a response to Quashie
\nand Anancyism in Jamaican culture. In N. S. Murrell, W. Spencer, & A. A. McFarlene (Eds.),
\nChanting down Babylon: A Rastafari reader (pp. 107-121). Philadelphia: Temple University
\nPress.
\nNaphtali, K. P. (1999). The testimony of His Imperial Majesty Emperor Haile Selassie I:
\nDefender of the Christian faith. Washington, DC: Zewd.
\nNettleford, R. (1998). Discourse on Rastafarian reality. In N. S. Murrell, W. Spencer, &
\nA. A. McFarlene (Eds.), Chanting down Babylon: A Rastafari reader (pp. 311-325).
\nPhiladelphia: Temple University Press.
\nNettleford, R., Augier, M. G., & Smith, R. (1960). The Rastafarian movement in Kingston,
\nJamaica. Kingston, Jamaica: University of the West Indies.
\nSpencer, W. D. (1999). Dread Jesus. London, UK: Cromwell.
\nVan Dijk, F. J. (1988). The Twelve Tribes of Israel: Rasta and the middle class. New West
\nIndian Guide, 62, 1-26.
\nWilliams Greene, A. (Host). (1997, July 13). Running African [Radio broadcast]. Kingston,
\nJamaica: Irie FM.
\nMonique Bedasse is a doctoral student of African history at the University of Miami, Florida.
\nShe completed a master\u2019s degree in Africana studies from the Africana Studies and Research
\nCenter at Cornell University in 2002. Her master\u2019s thesis, titled \u201cRasta Evolution: The Twelve
\nTribes of Israel in Transition,\u201d allowed her to return to Jamaica (where she was raised
\nRastafarian) to conduct research. Her dissertation is a study of Black internationalism that
\nlooks at connections between the Rastafarian movement and Tanzania\u2019s anticolonial politics,
\nin the age of Julius Nyerere.
\nFor reprints and permission queries, please visit SAGE\u2019s Web site at http:\/\/www
\n.sagepub.com\/journalsPermissions.nav.
\nBedasse \/ Rasta Evolution 973<\/p>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"
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