Chapter 3: Method
\n(Exploratory Case Study)
\nThis workbook is intended to help you to write Chapter 3 of your proposal. Each part of this
\nworkbook contains information that will help you to understand what should be included in
\nChapter 3 of your proposal:
\n\u2022\t Critical points to include in each section.
\n\u2022\t Issues to consider regarding alignment with other sections of the proposal.
\n\u2022\t References to enhance your understanding of what is needed.
\nWhen you have read each part of this workbook, write the corresponding section of your draft
\nproposal. Look for Write Your Dissertation writing prompts throughout the workbook; each
\none presents a list of everything you should address. Finally, each part of this workbook ends
\nwith two tools that will help you self-check your work: a checklist that highlights relevant advice
\nfrom the Dissertation Handbook, and a list of tips provided by the Research Review Board.
\nWhen you have completed all parts of this workbook, you can put your work from all the parts
\ntogether and you should have a finished Chapter 3 of your proposal.
\nThe decision tree in Table 1 will help you decide whether a case study is the appropriate design
\nfor your research. Examples for the various types of designs are provided so that you can see
\nhow other researchers used each design.
\nTable 1: Decision tree for choosing the correct qualitative design
\nDesign Questions answered When used Example
\nCase Study How, why, What Exploring a phenomenon in context, using
\none or more data
\ncollection methods.
\nDescribing in depth a
\ncase or cases.
\nHew, K. F. & Hara,
\nN. (2007) Knowledge sharing in
\nonline environments: A qualitative case study.
\nAmerican Society
\nfor Information Science and
\nTechnology, 58,
\n2310\u20132324.
\nPhenomenology How do people experience
\na phenomenon?
\nUnderstanding the
\nessence of the lived
\nexperiences of a group
\nof people surrounding
\na phenomenon
\nBurton, C. R.
\n(2000). Living
\nwith stroke: A
\nphenomenological
\nstudy. Journal of
\nAdvanced Nursing,
\n32, 301\u2013309.
\n(Cont.)
\n1
\nTable 1: Decision tree for choosing the correct qualitative design (cont.)
\nDesign Questions answered When used Example
\nGrounded theory What is the theory that
\nexplains the common experiences or
\nbehaviors of a group of
\npeople?
\nExplaining why people
\nbehave in a certain
\nmanner
\nHarley, A. E., Buckworth,
\nJ., Katz, M., Willis, S.,
\nOdoms-Yound, A., &
\nHeaney, C. A. (2009).
\nDeveloping long-term
\nphysical activity participation: A grounded
\ntheory study with African American women.
\nHealth Education and
\nBehavior; 36, 97\u2013112.
\nEthnographic study What are the shared
\npatterns of a culture or
\na group?
\nDescribing a culture
\nsharing group
\nBaillie J., & Lankshear,
\nA. (2015). Patient and
\nfamily perspectives on
\nperitoneal dialysis at
\nhome: Findings from
\nan ethnographic study.
\nJournal of Clinical Nursing, 24, 222\u2013234.
\nNarrative What are the stories of
\nthe individual experiences of a specific
\nindividual?
\nExploring the life of an
\nindividual or individuals
\nPatsiopoulos, A. T.; &
\nBuchanan, M. J. (2011).
\nThe practice of selfcompassion in counseling: A narrative inquiry.
\nProfessional Psychology:
\nResearch and Practice,
\n42, 301\u2013307.
\nThe decision tree in Table 2 will help you decide whether the exploratory case study is appropriate for your study. Examples are provided so that you can see how other researchers used
\neach type of case study for their research.
\nType of case study Questions answered When used Example
\nExploratory How, what? Used when there is no
\nsingle set of outcomes.
\nSeaton, J. X., & Schwier,
\nR. A. (2014). An
\nexploratory case study
\nof online instructors:
\nFactors associated with
\ninstructor engagement.
\nInternational Journal of
\nE-Learning and Distance
\nEducation, 29(1), 2\u201316.
\nTable 2: Decision tree for choosing the right case study
\n(Cont.)
\n2
\nType of case study Questions answered When used Example
\nExplanatory How, why? Used to explain presumed causal links that
\nare too complex for surveys or experimentation
\n(Yin, 2014).
\nChong, H., Wong, J. S.,
\n& Wang, X. (2014). An
\nexplanatory case study
\non cloud computing
\napplications in the built
\nenvironment. Automation in Construction, 44,
\n152\u2013162.
\nComparative How are cases alike?
\nHow are cases
\ndifferent?
\nUsed to compare two or
\nmore cases. Sometimes
\nreferred to as multiple
\ncase study because
\nthere is more than one
\ncase. But focus is on
\nthe comparison of the
\ncases.
\nRialp, A., Rialp, J.,
\nUrbano, D., & Valliant,
\nY. (2005). The bornglobal phenomenon: A
\ncomparative case study
\nresearch. Journal of
\nInternational Entrepreneurship, 3, 133\u2013171.
\nIntrinsic (Stake, 2005) Can answer all above
\nquestions but focus is
\nvery specific
\nUsed to better understand a specific case.
\nHellstr\u00f6m, I. Nolan, M.,&
\nLundh, U.
\n(2005). \u2018We do things
\nTogether\u2019 A case study
\nof \u201ccouplehood\u201d in
\ndementia.
\nDementia, 4(1), 7\u201322.
\nInstrumental Used to provide insight
\ninto an issue or help
\nrefine a theory. The case
\nplays a supportive role,
\nhelping us to understand something else.
\nThe case may or may
\nnot be seen as typical of
\nother cases.
\nLuck, L., Jackson, D., &
\nUsher, K.
\n(2007). STAMP:
\nComponents
\nof observable behaviour that indicate
\npotential for patient
\nviolence in emergency departments.
\nJournal of Advanced
\nNursing, 59, 11\u201319.
\ndoi:10.1111\/j.1365-
\n2648.2007.04308.x
\nCollective Similar to multiple case
\nstudies.
\nScheib, J. W. (2003).
\nRole stress in the
\nprofessional life of the
\nschool music teacher:
\nA collective case study.
\nJournal of Research in
\nMusic
\nEducation, 51,124\u2013136.
\ndoi:10.2307\/3345846
\nTable 2: Decision tree for choosing the right case study (cont.)
\n3
\nResearch Method
\n(This is the main heading for this chapter)
\nIntroduce the Research Method section.
\n(Do not use this heading for this section.)
\nBackground Reading for This Section
\nYour introduction to the Research Method section sets the stage for this chapter. Start by
\nrestating the purpose of your study and then present what will be in Chapter 3.
\nCritical Points to Address for This Section
\nStart by restating the purpose of your study. This statement is the same as the purpose
\nstatement presented in Chapter 1. Briefly preview the focus of Chapter 3, identify the
\nmajor topic (sample nursing essay examples by the best nursing assignment writing service)s to be covered in the chapter, and end with a transitional sentence to the
\nDescription and Justification for Research Method and Description and Justification for
\nResearch Design sections.
\nConsiderations for Alignment
\n\u2022\t Purpose statement must be written exactly the same as it was in Chapter 1.
\n\u2022\t Introduction should align with subsequent sections of this chapter.
\nWrite Your Dissertation
\nIn your dissertation template, write your introduction section, addressing
\neach of the following points:
\n\u2022\t Restate the purpose statement.
\n\u2022\t Preview what is in Chapter 3.
\n\u2022\t Identify major topic (sample nursing essay examples by the best nursing assignment writing service)s covered in this chapter.
\n\u2022\t End with a transitional sentence to the next section.
\nRemember: Ensure that your writing is cohesive. The ideas should flow logically and with
\nappropriate transitions between sentences.
\n4
\nDescribe and justify your research method.
\nBackground Reading for This Section
\nChapter 7 in the Field Guide, particularly Section 7.5
\nThe method used for an exploratory case study is a qualitative method. Qualitative methods
\nare used to gain a deeper understanding of the perceptions of people regarding a particular
\nphenomenon (Merriam, 2009). Yin (2010) described qualitative research as collecting data
\nfrom a variety of resources, evaluating the data, analyzing Assessments to produce findings,
\nand presenting the findings.
\nMethodology Selected
\n(This is the main heading for this section)
\nCritical Points to Address for This Section
\nDescription of method. In this section, describe in detail why a qualitative study is
\nthe best way to do your research. Do not simply provide a tutorial regarding qualitative
\nresearch. Instead, show the reader that you understand what the qualitative method is
\nand when to use this approach. Be sure to provide citations.
\nJustification of method. Begin by describing the problem you are exploring, and then
\nexplain how the problem indicates the need for a qualitative approach in order to understand a phenomenon. Explain why a qualitative study is the most appropriate method.
\nExplain why a quantitative approach is not appropriate for your research.
\nConsiderations for Alignment
\n\u2022\t Qualitative method must align with the purpose of your study.
\n\u2022\t Qualitative method must align with the problem statement.
\n\u2022\t Qualitative method must align with the research questions.
\n\u2022\t Aligns with description in Chapter 1.
\nSelf-Check Your Work Against the Dissertation Handbook
\nBegins with the purpose of the chapter, how it fits into the dissertation, and the
\norganization of the chapter.
\nDescribes the method of inquiry used (e.g., quantitative, qualitative, mixed
\nmethod, meta-analysis, program Assessment, etc.).
\nDescribes the specific research methodology chosen and how it derives
\nlogically from the statement of problem and the research questions.
\nIntroduction
\n5
\nSuggested Resources for Enrichment
\nCreswell, J. (2013). Qualitative inquiry & research design: Choosing among five approaches
\n(3rd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
\nKlenke, K. (2008). Qualitative research in the study of leadership. Cambridge, MA: Elsevier.
\nLatham, J. (2010). Frameworks to create the organization you really want! Retrieved from
\nhttp:\/\/www.drjohnlatham.com\/Overall_Approach.html
\nLeedy, P. D., & Ormrod, J. E. (2009). Practical research: Planning and design (9th ed.). New
\nYork, NY: Pearson\/Prentice-Hall.
\nMerriam, S. (2009). Qualitative research: A guide to design and implementation (2nd ed.).
\nSan Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
\nWrite Your Dissertation
\nIn your draft dissertation, write a few paragraphs that describe and justify the
\nmethod to be used, addressing each point provided.
\n\u2022\t Describe the problem.
\n\u2022\t Explain how the problem indicates the need for a qualitative approach.
\n\u2022\t Explain why a qualitative study is most appropriate.
\n\u2022\t Explain why a quantitative approach is not appropriate.
\n\u2022\t Be sure to cite references.
\nRemember: Ensure that your writing is cohesive. The ideas should flow logically and with
\nappropriate transitions between sentences.
\nDescribe and justify your research design.
\nBackground Reading for This Section
\nSections 7.2 to 7.4 in the Field Guide
\nChapter 12 introduction in the Field Guide
\nFigure 8.1 in the Field Guide
\nYin (2009, p. 2) posited three conditions for use of a case study: the purpose must be to answer \u201chow\u201d
\nor \u201cwhy\u201d questions, investigator must have little control over events, and the focus of the research
\nmust be on a contemporary phenomenon within a real-life context, especially when boundaries
\nbetween the phenomenon and context may not be clearly evident. According to Creswell (2013), in
\ncase study research the researcher explores a \u201creal-life, contemporary bounded system (a case) or
\nmultiple bounded systems (cases) over time, through detailed, in-depth data collection involving multiple sources of information\u201d (p. 97).
\n6
\nWhen we speak about bounded systems, we are referring to a case being bound by time and
\nplace. Let\u2019s say you want to do a study regarding the use of YouTube by teenagers. The phenomenon is the use of YouTube by teenagers. You have a real-life contemporary bounded
\nsystem (teenagers using YouTube). But you decide that this is too general, so you decide that
\nyou will look at four different groups of teenagers and their use of YouTube. You will collect
\ndata on Caucasians, African Americans, Hispanic (the best nursing writing service, a studybay for your papers)s, and Asians. The phenomenon is the use of
\nYouTube by teenagers.
\nBut what is your unit of analysis? The unit of analysis is what you are actually going to analyze. Remember, in case studies we want to triangulate the data in order to get a full, rich
\ndescription of the phenomenon in question. You can do this in several ways:
\n\u2022\t You can have different methods of data collection. For example, you can do surveys
\nand interviews, collect artifacts, or even review YouTube videos and read articles
\nabout their use.
\n\u2022\t You can have different cases from which to collect data.
\n\u2022\t Or you can have different researchers collecting the data.
\nSo you decide that you will break down your teenagers into cultural groups and will interview
\nCaucasian, African American, Hispanic (the best nursing writing service, a studybay for your papers), and Asian teenagers who use YouTube. In addition,
\nyou will visit some of the chatrooms available for YouTube users to get a sense of what this
\nis all about. Your units of analysis are your four groups of teenagers as well as the data you
\nobtain from the chatrooms. In qualitative research it is very important to define clearly what
\nyour units of analysis are because this will form the basis of your actual analysis.
\nSo now let\u2019s look at your research.
\n\u2022\t What is the phenomenon you will investigate? Remember that a phenomenon is a
\ncontemporary event within a real-life context.
\n\u2022\t What is the case? Remember that a case is bound by time and place. Is there more
\nthan one case? Is your study a single or multiple case study?
\n\u2022\t What is your unit of analysis? Remember that the unit of analysis is the data you will
\ncollect from within the case.
\nYin posited three types of case studies: exploratory, explanatory, and descriptive. There are
\nalso variations in terms of single case studies and multiple case studies. In addition, there
\nare comparative case studies. Stake (2005) included intrinsic, instrumental, and collective
\nresearch case studies as well. Each type of case study is unique, and used for different purposes and to answer different questions. When you indicate that you are doing a case study, it
\nis important to delineate the type of case study you are doing.
\nThe exploratory case study is used when there is no pre-determined outcome. According to
\nYin (2014), case studies are appropriate when asking \u201chow,\u201d \u201cwhy,\u201d \u201cwhat,\u201d and \u201cwho\u201d questions. In the exploratory case study, the questions answered are \u201chow\u201d and \u201cwhat.\u201d Exploratory case studies are also appropriate when you wish to gain an extensive and in-depth
\ndescription of a social phenomenon. The exploratory case study is used to explore presumed
\ncausal links that are too complex for a survey or experiment (Yin, 2014).
\n7
\nCase studies can be considered theory building or theory affirming. Eisenhardt (2007) stated
\nthat building theory from case studies involves using one or more cases to \u201ccreate theoretical constructs, propositions, and\/or midrange theory from case based, empirical evidence\u201d
\n(p. 25). In the exploratory case study we build a theory from our research. In explanatory or
\ndescriptive case studies we affirm an existing theory. According to Yin (1994), multiple case
\nstudies provide a better basis for theory building because having multiple cases allows for a
\ncomparison of those cases, which can lead to a stronger theory.
\nIn case studies, we have a conceptual framework rather than a theoretical framework. Jabareen (2009) defined the conceptual framework as a network, or \u201ca plane, of interlinked concepts that together provide a comprehensive understanding of a phenomenon or phenomena\u201d (p. 50).
\nAccording to Jabareen, conceptual frameworks are comprised of ontological, epistemological,
\nand methodological assumptions. Ontological assumptions are concerned with the nature of
\nreality, while epistemological assumptions relate to how things really are. Methodological
\nassumptions are concerned with building the conceptual framework and what this framework can tell us about the real world. Jabareen pointed out that the conceptual framework in
\nqualitative research provides understanding rather than a theoretical explanation. Conceptual
\nframeworks are derived from many discipline-oriented theories that become the data for the
\nconceptual framework analysis. The idea of the conceptual framework in qualitative research
\nis to analyze these theories in order to generate new interpretations and understanding.
\nCritical Points to Address for This Section
\nDescription of the design. In this section, describe the exploratory case study and its
\nuses. First, describe the case study design and its uses and how the case study differs
\nfrom other qualitative designs. Then focus on the exploratory type of case study. Describe
\nwhat the exploratory case study is. Then explain how the exploratory case study design
\ndiffers from other case study designs. Further, explain why the exploratory type of case
\nstudy is appropriate to your research as opposed to other types of case studies. Again,
\nthis is not to be written as a tutorial on case study design. Instead, your writing should
\nshow evidence that you understand the design. Be sure to cite references. Avoid textbooks and, instead, use scholarly authors such as Yin and Merriam.
\nJustification of the design. Describe the phenomenon being studied and discuss why
\nexploring the perceptions of certain people regarding the phenomenon is the best
\napproach to use. Explain how your research addresses Yin\u2019s three conditions for a case
\nstudy. Explain how your research aligns with the concept of the exploratory case study.
\nWhat questions are you addressing with your research and how do those questions align
\nwith the \u201chow\u201d and \u201cwhat\u201d questions of exploratory case studies? In addition, explain
\nwhy other qualitative designs would not be appropriate for your study.
\nRemember, it is not enough to simply address these issues with a laundry list of facts.
\nThis section should be assembled into a logically flowing narrative of your research
\ndesign and justification for the exploratory case study.
\n8
\nConsiderations for Alignment
\n\u2022\t Align your design with the problem being explored.
\n\u2022\t Show how your design is congruent with the purpose of your study.
\n\u2022\t Aligns with description in Chapter 1.
\nSuggested Resources for Enrichment
\nBennett, A., & Elman, C. (2006). Qualitative research: Recent developments in case
\nstudy methods. Annual Review of Political Science, 9, 455\u2013476. doi:10.1146\/annurev.
\npolisci.8.082103.104918
\nBergen, A., & While, A. (2000). A case for case studies: Exploring the use of case study
\ndesign in community nursing research. Journal of Advanced Nursing, 31, 926\u2013934.
\ndoi:10.1046\/j.1365-2648.2000.01356.x
\nEisenhardt, K. M. (2007). Theory building from cases: Opportunities and challenges.
\nAcademy of Management Journal, 50(1), 25\u201332. doi:10.5465\/AMJ.2007.24160888
\nEllet, W. (2007). The case study handbook: How to read, discuss, and write persuasively
\nabout cases. Boston, MA: Harvard Business School Press.
\nJabareen, Y. (2009). Building a conceptual framework: Philosophy, definitions, and procedure. International Journal of Qualitative Research. Retrieved from http:\/\/ejournals.library.ualberta.ca\/index.php\/IJQM\/article\/view\/6118\/5892
\nJones, C., & Lyons, C. (2004). Case study: Design? Method? Or comprehensive strategy?
\nNurse Researcher, 11(3), 70\u201376. Retrieved from Academic SearchComplete database
\nMetoyer-Duran, C., & Hernon, P. (1994). Problem statements in research proposals and
\npublished research: A case study of researchers\u2019 viewpoints. Library & Information
\nScience Research, 16(2), 105\u2013118.
\nPayne, S., Field, D., Rolls, L., Hawker, S., & Kerr, C. (2007). Case study research methods in
\nend-of-life care: Reflections on three studies. Journal of Advanced Nursing, 58, 236\u2013
\n245. doi:10.1111\/j.1365-2648.2007.04215.x
\nPerry, C. (1998). Processes of a case study methodology for postgraduate research in
\nmarketing. European Journal of Marketing, 32(9\/10), 785.
\nSimon, M. K., & Francis, B. J. (2001). The dissertation cookbook: From soup to nuts, A practical guide to start and complete your dissertation (3rd. ed.). Dubuque, IA: Kendall\/
\nHunt.
\nStake, R. (1995). The art of case research. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
\nStake, R. (2010). Qualitative research: Studying how things work. New York, NY: Guilford
\nPress.
\n(Cont.)
\n9
\nSuggested Resources for Enrichment (cont.)
\nTellis, W. (1997). Introduction to case study. The Qualitative Report, 3(2). Retrieved
\nfrom http:\/\/www.nova.edu\/ssss\/QR\/QR3-2\/tellis1.html
\nTellis, W. (1997). Application of a case study methodology. The Qualitative Report,
\n3(3). Retrieved from http:\/\/www.nova.edu\/ssss\/QR\/QR3-3\/tellis2.html
\nYin, R. K. (1993). Applications of case study research. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
\nYin, R. (1997). Case study Assessments: A decade of progress? New Directions for Assessments, (76), 69\u201378.
\nYin, R. (2004). The case study anthology. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
\nYin, R. (2014). Case study research: Design and methods (5th ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA:
\nSage.
\nWrite Your Dissertation
\nIn your dissertation template, write your description and justification for
\nyour design, addressing each of these points:
\n\u2022\t Explain the phenomenon and why exploratory case study is the best
\napproach to exploring it.
\n\u2022\t Explain how your study addresses \u201chow\u201d and \u201cwhat\u201d questions.
\n\u2022\t Explain how Yin\u2019s three conditions are addressed.
\n\u2022\t How does the exploratory case study align with the problem and purpose of
\nyour study.
\n\u2022\t Why are other qualitative designs not appropriate?
\n\u2022\t Why are other types of case studies not appropriate?
\nRemember: Ensure that your writing is cohesive. The ideas should flow logically and with
\nappropriate transitions between sentences.
\nAddress your research questions.
\nBackground Reading for This Section
\nChapter 5 in the Field Guide
\nYour research questions are the questions you will answer with your research. They must
\nalign with your problem statement and your purpose statement. You should never include
\nquestions that were not addressed in the problem and purpose statements.
\nIn qualitative research, there is generally an overarching or central question followed by
\nsubquestions. Remember that exploratory case studies use \u201chow\u201d and \u201cwhat\u201d questions, so
\nyour research questions should follow this format. For example, you might ask, \u201cWhat are the
\nperceptions of online graduate students regarding completing a dissertation?\u201d This would
\n10
\nbe your overarching question. Subquestions might be \u201cWhat difficulties do online graduate
\nstudents encounter when completing their dissertations?\u201d and \u201cHow do online graduate students overcome these difficulties?\u201d
\nCritical Points to Address for This Section
\nIn this section you will address your research questions. These questions must be the
\nsame as those you presented in Chapter 1. Remember that your research questions are
\nnot your interview questions. They are the questions that will be answered through your
\nresearch. Also include a narrative to show how your research questions align with the
\nproblem and purpose of your study.
\nConsiderations for Alignment
\n\u2022\t Research questions must align with the methodology being used.
\n\u2022\t Research questions must align with the problem by addressing the problem.
\n\u2022\t Research questions must align with the purpose.
\n\u2022\t Do not include questions that are not mentioned in the purpose of your study.
\n\u2022\t Research questions must align with those presented in Chapter 1.
\nSuggested Resources for Enrichment
\nCreswell, J. (2013). Qualitative inquiry & research design: Choosing among five approaches
\n(3rd. ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
\nMaxwell, J. (2013). Qualitative design: An interactive approach. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
\nYin, R. (2014). Case study research: Design and methods (5th ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA:
\nSage.
\nWrite Your Dissertation
\nIn your dissertation template, write one to two paragraphs that introduce your
\nresearch questions and show how they align with the problem and purpose. Then
\nwrite the overarching question and the subquestions. Be sure to address each of
\nthese points:
\n\u2022\t In a short narrative, introduce the research questions and explain how
\nthey align with the problem and purpose of the study.
\n\u2022\t Address your overarching research question.
\n\u2022\t Address your subquestions.
\nRemember: This content must be written exactly as it was in Chapter 1.
\nRemember: Ensure that your writing is cohesive. The ideas should flow logically and
\nwith appropriate transitions between sentences.
\n11
\nCritical Points to Address for This Section
\nIn this section, it is important to be transparent. You must describe your background and
\nany potential issues it may have on your research. You must also discuss how you will
\nmitigate any potential problems that you as the researcher might bring to the research.
\nDiscuss bracketing and keeping a reflexive journal.
\nAlso consider how you as the researcher might be perceived by your participants, and
\ndiscuss methods to address or at least mitigate any problems. For example, if you are a
\nfemale doing research on how female executives are viewed by their male counterparts,
\nyour gender might influence how your male participants respond to your questions.
\nConsiderations for Alignment
\n\u2022\t Your role as the researcher should align with your design.
\nAddress your role as the researcher.
\nBackground Reading for This Section
\nSection 12.7 in the Field Guide
\nIn qualitative research, the researcher becomes part of the research, because the researcher
\nengages with the respondents through various methods of data collection and analysis. As a
\nresult, the researcher\u2019s preconceived biases or assumptions could easily influence data collection or data analysis. This has always been a criticism of qualitative research. To mitigate
\nthis concern, the qualitative researcher uses methods such as bracketing to try to ensure that
\nhis or her biases will not interfere with the research.
\nAccording to Tufford and Neuman (2010), there is much debate over the definition of bracketing and even when it should be used. Tufford and Neuman suggested several approaches
\nto bracketing. One approach is to keep notes during data collection and data analysis so that
\nthe researcher can examine and reflect on his engagement with the data. Another method
\nof bracketing is to conduct an interview with an outside source or colleague to allow the
\nresearcher to uncover and bring to awareness any biases or pre-conceived assumptions. A
\nthird approach is to keep a reflexive journal. The journal is started before the actual data
\ncollection begins. Tufford and Newman suggested that the researcher should explain the reasons for undertaking the research, any assumptions regarding the research, the researcher\u2019s
\nown value system and any potential role conflict with the study participants.
\n12
\nWrite Your Dissertation
\nIn your dissertation template, write your section on your role as the researcher
\nand how you will mitigate any bias.
\n\u2022\t Describe your role as the researcher in data collection.
\n\u2022\t Explain the potential for researcher bias and ways to mitigate bias.
\nRemember: Ensure that your writing is cohesive. The ideas should flow logically and with
\nappropriate transitions between sentences.
\nSuggested Resources for Enrichment
\nChenail, R. J. (2011). Interviewing the investigator: Strategies for addressing instrumentation and researcher bias concerns in qualitative research. The Qualitative Report,
\n16, 255\u2013262. Retrieved from http:\/\/nsuworks.nova.edu\/tqr\/vol16\/iss1\/16
\nTufford, L., & Newman, P. (2010). Bracketing in qualitative research. Qualitative Social
\nWork, 11(1) 80\u201396.
\nWrite Your Dissertation
\nNow combine the material you wrote in this part of the workbook on research
\nmethod and design, research questions, and your role as the researcher into one
\nsuccinct section. Address all of the following points:
\nMetholdology Selected
\nA. Research method
\n(Cont.)
\n\u00b0 Detailed description of case study research, with particular focus on
\nexploratory case study research with references
\n\u00b0 Justification for research design, both the case study and exploratory
\ncase study
\n\u00b0 Why other designs are not appropriate
\n\u00b0 Alignment of method with problem and purpose
\n\u00b0 Detailed description of qualitative research with references
\n\u00b0 Justification for research method
\n\u00b0 Why other methods are not appropriate
\n\u00b0 Alignment of method with problem and purpose
\nB. Research design
\n13
\nWrite Your Dissertation (cont.)
\nSelf-Check Your Work Against the Dissertation Handbook
\nDescribes which qualitative methodology will be used.
\nJustifies choice of methodology using major and foundational sources.
\nExplains why other possible choices would be less effective.
\nDescribes specific research questions and subquestions (where appropriate)
\nthat are
\nClear and succinct.
\nCongruent with the statement of problem.
\nAnswerable.
\nFew in number.
\nClearly stated.
\nOpen-ended (not yes\/no questions).
\nDescribes the role of the researcher in the data collection procedure.
\nAddresses the potential impact and minimization of researcher bias
\nthrough methodological approaches.
\nC. Research questions
\nMetholdology Selected
\n\u00b0 Short narrative to introduce the research questions and explain
\nhow they align with the problem and purpose of the study
\n\u00b0 Overarching research question
\n\u00b0 Subquestions
\nRemember: Be sure to use references. Avoid textbooks. Use the qualitative researchers familiar with this type of study (e.g., Yin).
\nRemember: Ensure that your writing is cohesive. The ideas should flow logically and with
\nappropriate transitions between sentences.
\nD. Role of the researcher
\nMethodology
\n14
\nDescribe how and justify why the research method and design is appropriate
\nfor your problem, purpose, and research questions.
\nfrom the Research Review Board
\nStudy Participants
\n(This is the main heading for this section)
\nDescribe the population in your study.
\nBackground Reading for This Section
\nChapter 10 in the Field Guide
\nThe population in your study includes the people you plan to interview who have knowledge regarding the phenomenon you are researching. There are several things to consider
\nwhen selecting your population. First, the population must align with your problem and with
\nyour purpose. For example, if your problem is that immigrants to the United States often do
\nnot use healthcare facilities, and your purpose is to try to understand how immigrants view
\nhealthcare and the issues they face when accessing healthcare, your population would have
\nto be immigrants to the United States. You would not interview physicians who provide services for immigrants (unless you wanted to get a different perspective to add to your data
\nfrom the immigrants).
\nThe next issue to consider is the size of your population. If you decide to use all immigrants to
\nthe United States, your population would be huge and you might see real differences between
\nvarious ethnic groups and their use of healthcare. So it is best to try to narrow your population to a specific group, and even to a specific geographic location. So in this case you might
\nwant to limit your population to immigrants coming from Africa or, even more specifically,
\nfrom Nigeria who now reside in New York City.
\nThe next big issue is access to your population. It might be difficult to get access to Nigerian
\nimmigrants in New York unless you are also from the same cultural background or know
\nsomeone who can act as a gatekeeper to help you to gain access to this population. Similarly,
\nif your population belongs to, for example, employees at a specific company, you will need to
\nget permission from the company to solicit them for your study.
\nTIPS
\n15
\nCritical Points to Address for This Section
\nIn this section, clearly describe the population you will be using for your research. The
\npopulation used must align with your problem, purpose, and research questions. Include
\na description of the demographics of the population so that the reader will be able to
\ndetermine whether the sample is representative of the actual population. For example,
\nget an idea of how many Nigerian immigrants reside in New York. Also include such
\ndemographics as gender, age, education, and socioeconomic status as well. In addition,
\nexplain how you will access this population. If you plan to obtain participants from a
\nspecific organization, you must obtain permission from that organization prior to soliciting your sample. This signed permission must be in an appendix.
\nConsiderations for Alignment
\n\u2022\t Population must align with the specific problem presented in Chapter 1.
\n\u2022\t Population must align with the purpose statement.
\n\u2022\t Population must align with your research questions.
\nSuggested Resources for Enrichment
\nCreswell, J. (2013). Qualitative inquiry & research design: Choosing among five approaches
\n(3rd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
\nMaxwell, J. (2012). Qualitative research design: An interactive approach. Thousand Oaks,
\nCA: Sage.
\nMerriam, S. (2014). Qualitative research: A guide to design and implementation. San
\nFrancisco, CA: Jossey Bass.
\nWrite Your Dissertation
\nIn your dissertation template, write the section on your population, addressing
\neach of these points:
\n\u2022\t Who is the population?
\n\u2022\t What geographic area are they in?
\n\u2022\t What are the demographics of the population?
\n\u2022\t Are they within a specific group or organization?
\n\u2022\t How does the population align with the problem, purpose, and research questions of your study?
\n\u2022\t How will you access this population?
\n\u2022\t Is permission needed to access the population? If so, the signed permission
\nmust be in an appendix.
\nRemember: Ensure that your writing is cohesive. The ideas should flow logically and with
\nappropriate transitions between sentences.
\n16
\nDescribe and justify sampling in your study.
\nBackground Reading for This Section
\nChapter 10 in the Field Guide
\nSection 12.4 in the Field Guide
\nSampling technique. Generally, in qualitative research your sampling technique will be nonrandom purposive sampling because you will be choosing specific people for your sample
\nwho meet the criteria for your study. However, there are other techniques available. Creswell
\n(2013) listed 16 types of sampling techniques (p. 158). One approach is snowball sampling.
\nSometimes the population you are researching may not be readily available, so you would ask
\npeople already in your sample to identify others who might fit your criteria. The approach
\nyou use depends on the purpose of your study and the population from which you draw your
\nsample.
\nSample criteria. It is important to clearly describe the criteria you will use to define your sample. These criteria must be in alignment with your problem, purpose statement, and research
\nquestions. For example, if you plan to do a study on how high school teachers perceive the
\nuse of standardized tests, one criteria would be that your sample consist of only high school
\nteachers. You might also want to use seasoned teachers, so you might note that your teachers must have at least five years of teaching experience. You may also wish to delineate the
\nsubjects taught by the teachers, so you might say that your sample will be high school algebra
\nteachers with at least five years of experience teaching in a specific geographic location. Be
\ncertain that the information you provide regarding sample is aligned with the description of
\nyour sample in Chapter 1.
\nSample size. Identify the anticipated sample size for each group of participants. For example,
\nif you plan to collect data from teachers and parents regarding bullying, identify the estimated
\nsample size for both the parents and the teachers. In qualitative research, we continue to
\ncollect data until data saturation has occurred. Stebbins (2001) described the conventional
\napproach for determining sample size, theoretical saturation, as the point when no new information is produced from additional cases. There are various views on how many cases are
\nneeded to achieve data saturation. Some researchers indicate that it can be as few as three
\nto five cases, while others believe that case studies require as many as 30 respondents. The
\nnumber of respondents for data saturation is dependent on how homogeneous the sample
\nis as well as on the qualitative design. The more homogeneous the sample, the fewer cases
\nneeded for data saturation. The more heterogeneous the sample, the more cases needed for
\ndata saturation. Indicate how many participants you will have in your sample and justify this
\nnumber. If you have more than one group, indicate how many participants you will have in
\neach group.
\n17
\nAccessing your sample. When determining your sample, consider how you will access the
\nsample. Some populations are closed to outsiders, so gaining entrance may be difficult. At
\ntimes, finding a gatekeeper who can gain entry for you might be necessary. You can also
\naccess sample populations through conferences, list serves, or even by advertising on social
\nmedia or through the newspaper. Snowball sampling is often used when trying to access a
\npopulation that may be difficult to reach through conventional channels. If you want to access
\na sample at a specific place of employment, you will need to get permission to solicit participants for your research.
\nSoliciting participants. You must also consider how you will solicit people to be part of your
\nstudy. Will you send out an email? Will you make telephone calls? Will you set up a table at
\na conference or at some other site? It is important to make certain that people do not feel
\ncoerced to be part of your study and that their participation is confidential. Therefore, you
\nwould not set up a table at a conference and interview people who stop by. Instead, you would
\nhand out information about your study and invite potential participants to contact you.
\nCritical Points to Address for This Section
\nIdentify your sampling technique. Explain clearly what approach to sampling you will
\nuse so that the reader can understand exactly what you will be doing. Define the parameters of your sample carefully. Your approach will be nonrandom because you will take
\nanyone who volunteers to be part of your study and fits the criteria. It will be purposive
\nbecause you have defined clear criteria for your sample.
\nOnce you have selected your sampling technique, you must justify why it is appropriate
\nfor your study. Base your justification on the purpose of your study and on the population and its availability to you. Ensure that the population chosen for your research is in
\nalignment with your study purpose.
\nBe sure to describe your sample fully. This description allows the reader to determine
\nwhether the sample is representative of the population. It also allows the reader to
\ndetermine whether the sample is similar to another population, which might make the
\nresults more transferable. Discuss how your sample is representative of the population
\nbeing studied.
\nNext, discuss sample size. Always state an approximate number of people who will be
\ninterviewed and then discuss the concept of data saturation. Justify the number you have
\nchosen. Do not just choose a random number. Remember the factors that might determine when data saturation has occurred, such as the type of design and the homogeneity
\nof the population and sample.
\nDiscuss how you will access your population. If permissions are needed, provide them
\nin your appendix.
\nFinally, describe how you will solicit participation for your study from the population
\nchosen. This description should be very detailed so that the reader can understand
\nexactly how you intend to solicit people. Show that you have considered issues of confidentiality and free choice.
\n18
\nConsiderations for Alignment
\n\u2022\t Sample must align with the population.
\n\u2022\t Sample must align with the specific problem of the research.
\n\u2022\t Sample must align with the purpose of the research.
\n\u2022\t Sample must align with the research questions.
\n\u2022\t Sample must align with information provided in Chapter 1.
\n\u2022\t Sample must align with the population.
\nSuggested Resources for Enrichment
\nCarlsen, B., & Glenton, C. (2011).What about N? A methodological study of sample-size
\nreporting in focus group studies. BMC Medical Research Methodology, 11(1), 26.
\nCreswell, J. (2013). Qualitative inquiry & research design: Choosing among five approaches
\n(3rd. ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
\nMarshall, B., Cardon, P., Poddar, A., & Fontenot, R. (2013). Does sample size matter in
\nqualitative research: A review of qualitative interviews in IS research. Journal of
\nComputer Information Systems, 54(1), 11\u201322. Retrieved from http:\/\/iacis.org\/jcis\/
\narticles\/JCIS54-2.pdf
\nMerriam, S. (2009). Qualitative research: A guide to design and implementation (2nd ed.).
\nSan Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
\nO\u2019Reilly, M., & Parker, N. (2013). Unsatisfactory saturation: A critical exploration of the
\nnotion of saturated sample sizes in qualitative research. Qualitative Research, 13,
\n190\u2013197.
\nStebbins, R. A. (2001). Exploratory research in the social sciences [Kindle edition]. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
\nWrite Your Dissertation
\nIn your dissertation template, please write the section on study participants,
\naddressing each of these points:
\n\u2022\t Describe the general population and specific population.
\n\u2022\t Describe your sampling method.
\n\u2022\t Identify the criteria for selecting respondents.
\n\u2022\t Describe the appropriateness of the sampling method based on the population
\nand the purpose of your study.
\n\u2022\t Describe how the characteristics of the sample align with the general
\npopulation.
\n\u2022\t Describe how you will access your sample.
\n\u2022\t Describe how you will recruit participants.
\n\u2022\t Discuss sample size and data saturation.
\n(Cont.)
\n19
\n\u2022\t Clearly describes the population and how it is being accessed.
\n\u2022\t Clearly identify your sampling approach.
\n\u2022\t Justify that your sample size is sufficient to achieve data saturation.
\nSelf-Check Your Work Against the Dissertation Handbook
\nDescribes and justifies the context (including site) for the study.
\nClearly defines both the general study population and the specific population.
\nDemonstrates (and documents) the ability to access the population.
\nDescribes and justifies the sampling approach.
\nDescribes how the characteristics of the sample population align
\nwith the general population.
\nDiscusses how the sample selection impacts the generalizability
\nof the study.
\nIdentifies strategies for recruiting participants.
\nSpecifies appropriate criteria for selecting participants.
\nAddresses the relationship between the researcher and the participants.
\nJustifies the number of participants.
\nfrom the Research Review Board
\nWrite Your Dissertation (cont.)
\n\u2022\t Justify the sample size for each unit of analysis.
\n\u2022\t Discuss issues of transferability.
\nRemember: Ensure that your writing is cohesive. The ideas should flow logically and with
\nappropriate transitions between sentences.
\nPopulation and Sampling
\nTIPS
\n20
\nData Collection
\nBackground Reading for This Section
\nSection 12.6 in the Field Guide
\nSection 12.7 in the Field Guide
\nApproaches to data collection. There are various approaches to data collection. The most
\ncommon approach is the interview. If you are conducting interviews, they can be done in person or via email, Skype, telephone, or any other method that allows participants to answer
\nyour questions. Carefully consider the best approach to collecting data and how you will collect it. Often distance is a problem, so face-to-face interviews are not always possible, although
\nthis is the preferred method of data collection.
\nWhen you do interviews, observe the behavior of your participants carefully and keep field
\nnotes regarding their behavior. Body language and facial expressions can sometimes be more
\nrevealing than the actual words spoken.
\nType of data collected. Because you are exploring a phenomenon, the primary type of data
\nyou collect will be the responses of your participants. However, remember that in case studies we must triangulate our data, meaning that you must collect data from other sources as
\nwell. For example, you may decide to interview several different groups who have knowledge
\nregarding the phenomenon. You may collect data using questionnaires, which generally consist of open-ended questions that a participant can answer in her own time frame. You may
\ndecide to collect news accounts or images regarding the phenomenon. You may even decide
\nto collect artifacts from the phenomenon. Part of the data you collect consists of your field
\nnotes. These notes provide additional information that helps put the interview responses
\ninto context. Overall, the idea is to get a complete understanding of the phenomenon from as
\nmany sources as possible.
\nThe research protocol. Yin (2009) believed a research protocol was an essential tool for
\nconducting a case study. Your research protocol is included in an appendix. The protocol
\ncan increase the reliability of the research because it serves as a guide to ensure that the
\nresearcher will use the same data collection activities over a number of cases. The case study
\nprotocol serves as a procedural guide for data collection, coding, and analyzing interview sessions. Yin believed that the interview protocol script could help control the flow and sequence
\nof questions that are part of the script.
\nYour interview questions should be written so that responses to them will answer your
\nresearch questions. In addition, remember that exploratory case studies answer \u201cwhat\u201d and
\n\u201chow\u201d questions. Be careful when writing interview questions:
\n\u2022\t Do not ask yes\/no questions. They add little value in terms of really exploring the
\nperceptions of your participants.
\n\u2022\t Make certain your questions are clear and ask what you intend.
\n(This is the main heading for this section)
\n21
\n\u2022\t Do not use jargon or slang.
\n\u2022\t Ensure that your questions are open-ended to allow your participants to share their
\nperspectives.
\nIn addition to the interview questions, you might also write probing questions to elicit more
\ninformation, or you might simply be aware that you may need to probe further to fully understand what is being said.
\nIt may also be important to include some demographic questions so you can describe your
\nsample. When you ask personal questions such as age or salary, be careful that you ask for
\nranges rather than specific numbers.
\nInclude in your research protocol or script your opening and closing remarks to your participants. Generally, start by thanking your participant for taking the time to be part of the study.
\nIn addition, explain the purpose of the study and remind them that they are free to stop the
\ninterview at any time. At the close of the interview, again thank them for their participation.
\nYou might ask them if they have any other insights that were not covered in your questions.
\nAudit trail. The audit trail provides a procedure that allows the researcher to outline decisions made throughout the research process and to provide rational for those decisions. It
\nis important to maintain a chain of evidence that will allow the reader to understand how
\ndata were collected and analyzed and the rationale for any deviation. Providing an audit trail
\nincreases the rigor and trustworthiness of qualitative research. The audit trail consists of
\ncomprehensive notes related to the contextual background of the data and the rationale for
\nall methodological decisions.
\nPilot study. The pilot study is generally used to evaluate the research questions and identify
\nany potential researcher bias. Generally the pilot study is conducted with a small subgroup
\ndrawn from the sample\u2014three to five people is usually sufficient. The pilot study is conducted
\nin exactly the same manner as the interview for the research, including getting informed concept from the participants. However, in addition to the interview questions, the researcher
\nwill also ask pilot study participants if they understood the questions, if any questions should
\nbe added, or if any questions should be deleted. Besides focusing on the interview questions,
\nthe pilot study gives the researcher the opportunity to find out how long the interview will
\nlast, whether the interviews will flow logically and coherently, whether any questions need to
\nbe changed, and to determine the type of data that will be obtained from the questions. The
\npilot study provides face validity for the interview questions.
\nCritical Points to Address for This Section
\nData collection methods. It is important to describe carefully exactly how you will be
\ncollecting data. You should also give the rationale for your data collection methods. The
\nreader should be able to follow your steps to actually replicate your research. Writing out
\na step by step approach to data collection may help to solidify your approach. Generally
\nif you do interviews you will want to record the interview. This must be clearly spelled
\nout in this section and you must also have this noted on the informed consent form.
\n(Cont.)
\n22
\nCritical Points to Address for This Section (cont.)
\nIt is also important to consider how you will keep track of your data. Generally interviews are transcribed and then returned to the participants for review. This process
\nis called member checking and lends more credibility to your results. In this section
\nexplain whether and how you will transcribe the data. In addition, if you are doing
\nmember checking, explain how it will be done.
\nTypes of data collected. What type of data will be collected? If you conduct interviews
\nor solicit responses from people, your data will be verbal, auditory, and perhaps visual
\nif you videotape the interview. In addition, you may collect other types of data such as
\nnewspaper accounts, pictures, or artifacts. It is important to indicate exactly what types
\nof data will be collected and the rationale for collecting that data.
\nThe research protocol. Include the research protocol in an appendix. The protocol
\nshould include your interview script, and the script includes your interview questions,
\nprobing questions you might ask, and opening and closing remarks.
\nAudit trail. The audit trail enhances the rigor and trustworthiness of your research. In
\nthis section describe how you will conduct your audit. Often an audit is conducted by
\nkeeping a research journal in which you discuss the data collection within a contextual
\nframework. The purpose of the audit is for the reader to be able to understand what
\nwas done within the context of the research and to understand any deviations that were
\nmade from the research protocol.
\nPilot study. Clearly describe your pilot study participants. Then explain how the pilot
\nstudy will be conducted. In your dissertation, include the results of the pilot study and
\ndiscuss any changes made as a result of the pilot study. The pilot study provides face
\nvalidity for your questions. It assures that your participants will understand the questions and that the questions ask what is intended.
\nField tests. Field tests are often done in qualitative research to assess the quality of the
\nresearch questions. In the field test, the researcher contacts three to five people who
\nare experts in the type of research being conducted and asks them to review the interview questions. The focus is on alignment of the research questions with the research
\ndesign and on the quality of the actual questions.
\nIf you conduct a field test, describe your field test participants and how you conducted
\nthe field test. In your dissertation, include results of the field test and discuss any
\nchanges made as a result. The field tests provide another form of face validity for your
\nquestions.
\n23
\nConsiderations for Alignment
\n\u2022\t Alignment with the purpose of the research.
\n\u2022\t Alignment with the research questions.
\n\u2022\t Alignment with the research design.
\n\u2022\t Should align with procedures followed.
\nSuggested Resources for Enrichment
\nHoughton, C., Casey, D., Shaw., D., & Murphy, K. (2013). Rigour in qualitative case-study
\nresearch. Nurse Researcher 20, 4, 12\u201317.
\nKitzinger, J. (1994). The methodology of focus groups: The importance of interaction
\nbetween research participants. Sociology of Health & Illness, 16, 103\u2013121.
\nMartinez, R., Lewis, C., & Weinder, B. (2014). Instrumentation issues in implementation
\nscience. Implementation Science, 9(118), 1\u20139. Retrieved from http:\/\/www.implementationscience.com\/content\/9\/1\/118
\nMerriam, S. (2009). Qualitative research: A guide to design and implementation (2nd ed.).
\nSan Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
\nYin, R. (2014). Case study research: Design and methods (5th ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA:
\nSage.
\nWrite Your Dissertation
\nIn your draft dissertation, write your section on data collection methods. Be
\nsure to address each of the points listed below.
\n\u2022\t Data collection method
\n\u2022\t Types of data to be collected and unit(s) of analysis
\n\u2022\t Research protocol
\n\u2022\t Justification of data collection protocol
\n\u2022\t How data will be generated, gathered, and recorded
\n\u2022\t How data will be tracked
\n\u2022\t Audit trail
\n\u2022\t Pilot study, field test
\nRemember: Ensure that your writing is cohesive. The ideas should flow logically and with
\nappropriate transitions between sentences.
\n24
\nSelf-Check Your Work Against the Dissertation Handbook
\nDescribes and justifies the data collection method(s) (e.g., interview, focus
\ngroup, observation).
\nAddresses what types of data will be collected and the unit(s) of
\nanalysis.
\nIncludes detailed protocol(s) in an appendix for data collection
\n(e.g., interview protocol\/script, focus group protocol\/script, etc.).
\nJustifies contents of data collection protocols by connection to the
\nresearch questions posed in relation to the qualitative paradigm
\nchosen.
\nClearly describes the process by which the data were generated, gathered,
\nand recorded.
\nClearly describes the systems used for keeping track of data and emerging
\nunderstandings (research logs, reflective journals, and cataloging systems).<\/p>\n
Data Collection
\nTIPS
\n\u2022\t Clearly describe all instrumentation.
\n\u2022\t Propose a pilot test for any instrumentation lacking prior validation.
\n\u2022\t Your interview or observation protocols will have face validity.
\nfrom the Research Review Board
\nProcedures Followed
\n(This is the main heading for this section)
\nBackground Reading for This Section
\nSection 12.6 in the Field Guide
\nIn this section, describe and justify your data collection method. In case study research, it is
\nnecessary to triangulate your data. One way to triangulate data is to use different data collection methods. Creswell (2013) suggested that there are several methods for data collection in qualitative research. Qualitative researchers can use various documents, interviews,
\nartifacts, and observations for case studies. Interviews can be semi-structured, structured, or
\nunstructured.
\n25
\nCritical Points to Address for This Section
\nIn this section clearly describe exactly how you will collect data and what will be collected. Provide a step-by-step account of the data collection process so that anyone could
\nreplicate your study. Explain what data will be collected and why it is being collected, and
\nthen explain how you will collect it.
\nExplain where the interviews will be held, and discuss issues of confidentiality that might
\nbe impacted by the setting. The research setting should be a place that provides a quiet
\nconfidential place to conduct the interviews. For example, libraries often have conference rooms that can be used at no cost, whereas it is not a good idea to hold an interview
\nat Starbucks. If you are conducting your research within your participants\u2019 work setting,
\nyou will need to consider how you will protect the anonymity of your participants.
\nAlso, if relevant, discuss when the interviews will be held. Generally, make certain that
\nthe interviews are held at a convenient time for your participants.
\nIf you are videotaping or audiotaping your interviews, you must discuss this. In addition,
\nthis must be noted in the informed consent form.
\nIf you will be using incentives to solicit participants, discuss this and explain what the
\nincentive is and justify why you are using it. It is usually not a good idea to offer a cash
\nreward for participation. If you offer too little, the incentive might not be effective. If you
\n(Cont.)
\nIn semi-structured interviews, the researcher has a set of questions but can deviate from the
\nquestions by asking additional questions to get clarification for any answers. Unstructured
\ninterviews are more like a conversation. The researcher might start the interview by saying,
\n\u201cTell me about. . . .\u201d Additional questions flow from responses to the previous questions. When
\nconducting a structured interview, the researcher does not deviate from the interview script.
\nYou can conduct interviews in several different ways. You can conduct semi-structured interviews with an individual or a focus group. Interviews can be conducted in person, via telephone, via online sites such as SurveyMonkey, by using Skype, or through email. In-person
\ninterviews are preferred because they give you the opportunity to observe each participant
\nand to make notes regarding body language or how the person reacts to questions. But sometimes in-person interviews are not possible because of constraints caused by distance and
\ncost. The telephone interview does not give you the opportunity to observe the participants,
\nbut you can be aware of changes in voice and make note of this. Using email or online sites can
\nbe convenient, but they do not allow you to see or hear the participants. In addition, when you
\nuse email or SurveyMonkey you run the risk of someone other than the intended participant
\nanswering your questions.
\nGathering documents and artifacts relevant to the phenomenon being studied will provide
\nadditional information that you can use to supplement the data gathered from interviews.
\nData such as newspaper accounts, pictures, audio tapes, or video tapes can provide good
\nsources of information regarding the phenomenon. Archival data can also provide valuable
\ninformation. If you use archival data, remember that you probably must get permission to
\naccess it unless it is in the public domain.
\n26
\nTIP
\nCritical Points to Address for This Section (cont.)
\noffer too much, data collection might be influenced because people may agree to participate because of the reward rather than because they are interested in helping you gather
\ndata. Some researchers offer other types of incentives, such as holding a drawing and
\ngiving the lucky winner a gift card of some sort.
\nOther issues to consider include how you will make participants comfortable during the
\ninterview, what the seating arrangement will be, whether you will provide food or something to drink, such as coffee or water. This information does not have to be provided in
\nthis section, but it should be included in your research protocol.
\nIf you are conducting interviews, you must transcribe your recordings of them verbatim
\ninto written form. You can do this by listening carefully to each section and then typing it
\nverbatim. This method can take a long time, especially if you are not a fast typist. Faster,
\nautomated ways include the following:
\n\u2022\t You can buy transcription programs that that will transcribe the interviews
\nfrom an audio or visual tape into written form.
\n\u2022\t There are also apps available for your cell phone that allow you to transcribe
\ntaped interviews into your computer.
\n\u2022\t You can also hire a transcriptionist to transcribe the data. If using a transcriptionist, you must have him or her sign a confidentiality agreement.
\nThere should be no names identified on your recording or on the transcript. Instead,
\nidentify participants by using the personal identifier you have assigned to each person.
\nAfter the interview has been transcribed, return the interview to the participant for
\nmember checking. Researchers use member checking to ensure the accuracy and validity
\nof their results. Ask participants to review the transcript of their interview for accuracy
\nand to make any necessary additions, corrections, or deletions. The member-checked
\nversion of the transcript is the one you will use for data analysis.
\nIf you are collecting written material, pictures, audio or visual tapes, or artifacts, explain
\nwhere you will access this information. Sometimes consent is needed to use these
\nresources. If that is the case, explain it in this section and provide a copy of the consent
\nform in an appendix.
\nCreate a research protocol that will include a detailed step-by-step account of exactly
\nhow your data will be collected. Provide the protocol in your appendix. In addition, maintain an audit trail while collecting and analyzing your data.
\n27
\nConsiderations for Alignment
\n\u2022\t Must align with the research method and design.
\n\u2022\t Must align with the research purpose.
\n\u2022\t Must align with information provided in Chapter 1.
\n\u2022\t Must align with information provided in the data collection methods section.
\nSuggested Resources for Enrichment
\nBloomberg, L. D., & Volpe, M. (2008). Completing your qualitative dissertation: A roadmap from beginning to end [Kindle Edition]. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
\nCreswell, J. (2013). Qualitative inquiry & research design: Choosing among five
\napproaches (3rd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
\nKitzinger, J. (1994). The methodology of focus groups: The importance of interaction
\nbetween research participants. Sociology of Health & Illness, 16,103\u2013121.
\nPolkinghorne, D. (2005). Language and meaning: Data collection in qualitative research.
\nJournal of Counseling Psychology, 52, 137\u2013145. doi.org\/10.1037\/0022-0167.52.2.137
\nSeidman, I. (2013). Interviewing as qualitative research: A guide for researchers in education. New York, NY: Teacher\u2019s College Press.
\nStewart, D., & Shamdasani (2015). Focus groups: Theory and practice. Thousand Oaks,
\nCA: Sage.
\nYin, R. (2014). Case study research: Design and methods (5th ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA:
\nSage.
\nWrite Your Dissertation
\nIn your draft dissertation, write your section on procedures followed, addressing
\neach of the following points:
\n\u2022\t Provide the sequence of steps that will be used to collect the data.
\n\u2022\t Provide justification for each step of the data collection.
\n\u2022\t Address the quality of the research.
\n\u2022\t Explain the relationship of the pilot study to the full study.
\nRemember: Ensure that your writing is cohesive. The ideas should flow logically and with
\nappropriate transitions between sentences.
\n28
\nSelf-Check Your Work Against the Dissertation Handbook
\nStates the sequence of steps followed in conducting the research, from
\ndeveopment of the research instrument(s) to data analysis.
\nDetails all steps in a way that another researcher could follow the steps
\nto reproduce the study.
\nExplains the relation of the pilot study to the full study, if applicable.
\nProcedures Followed
\n\u2022\t Describe and justify your data collection technique.
\nfrom the Research Review Board
\nTrustworthiness
\n(This is the main heading for this section)
\nBackground Reading for This Section
\nSection 12.9 in the Field Guide
\nAccording to Bloomberg and Volpe (2008), transparency in research procedures is crucial for
\nestablishing trustworthiness and credibility. Establishing transparency requires clear documentation of research procedures and developing a study protocol that can be easily followed.
\nAccording to Yin (2014), trustworthiness stems from triangulating the data and maintaining a chain of evidence. Yin suggested that having multiple sources of data helps to capture a
\nbroader range of perspectives, behaviors, and attitudes.
\nResearch credibility refers to the degree the research accurately presents participants\u2019 perceptions, feelings, and actions. Credibility stems from the researcher being aware of any personal biases that might impact the research. It is important to discuss any personal biases and
\nto explain how they may impact the research. It is also important to discuss how these biases
\nwill be mitigated.
\nIn qualitative research, confirmability involves reflexivity and the use of an audit trail that
\nlinks case data to study participant responses (Bloomberg & Volpe, 2008). Yin (2014) suggested building a chain of evidence to improve case study reliability. Reliability is also a function of researcher trustworthiness and credibility (Yin, 2010). Journaling is one approach to
\nestablishing trustworthiness and credibility, because it allows for introspection regarding the
\ndata collected.
\nTIPS
\n29
\nCritical Points to Address for This Section
\nCredibility, transferability, dependability, and confirmability are fundamental elements
\nof qualitative research that allow the reader to assess the value of your research. In this
\nsection you must discuss procedures you will use to assure the accuracy of your data and
\nhow you will lessen the impact of researcher bias and ensure the research is trustworthy. Address all four points\u2014credibility, transferability, dependability, confirmability\u2014
\nexplaining what they mean and then discussing how you will assure they are addressed
\nin your research.
\nCredibility. How will you make your research more credible? How will you mitigate any
\nbiases? How will you ensure the accuracy of your data collection and data analysis?
\nTransferability. Generally results of qualitative research are not transferable or generalizable to another population. However, if you clearly describe your population and
\nsample, the reader will be able to decide whether the results can transfer to another
\npopulation.
\nDependability. How will you make certain that your results are dependable? Yin suggested that dependability increases when you make certain that procedural approaches
\nremain constant throughout the research. How will you do this?
\nConfirmability. Confirmability requires use of an audit trail and chain of evidence so
\nthat the reader can know that the results are valid and that the research was done with
\nrigor and thoughtfulness. How will you increase the confirmability of your research?
\nWhat chain of evidence will you have?
\nConsiderations for Alignment
\n\u2022\t Must align with research method and design.
\n\u2022\t Must align with procedures followed.
\nDependability, which is similar to reliability in qualitative research, refers to being able to
\nreplicate cases procedurally without attempting to replicate results, according to Yin. So it is
\nimportant to replicate data collection in exactly the same manner with each participant.
\nQualitative research results cannot be transferred or generalized to a different population.
\nHowever, if the researcher carefully describes the sample and research methods, the reader
\ncan decide whether the results are applicable to their own population.
\n30
\nSuggested Resources for Enrichment
\nBloomberg, L. D., & Volpe, M. (2008). Completing your qualitative dissertation: A roadmap
\nfrom beginning to end [Kindle Edition]. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
\nHarrison, J., MacGibbon, L., Morton, M. (2001). Regimes of trustworthiness in qualitative
\nresearch: The rigors of reciprocity. Qualitative Inquiry, 7, 323\u2013345.
\nMorrow, S. (2005). Trustworthiness in qualitative research. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 52, 250\u2013260.
\nWilliams E. (2009). Achieving trustworthiness in qualitative research: A panparadigmatic perspective. Psychotherapy Research, 19(4-5), 576\u2013582.
\ndoi:10.1080\/10503300802702113
\nYin, R. (2014). Case study research: Design and methods (5th ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA:
\nSage.
\nWrite Your Dissertation
\nIn your draft dissertation, write your section on trustworthiness, addressing
\neach of the following points:
\n\u2022\t Credibility
\n\u2022\t Transferability
\n\u2022\t Dependability
\n\u2022\t Confirmability
\n\u2022\t What procedures will you follow to ensure accuracy of the data and lessen
\nresearcher bias (e.g., trustworthiness, member checks, triangulation)?
\nRemember: Ensure that your writing is cohesive. The ideas should flow logically and with
\nappropriate transitions between sentences.
\nSelf-Check Your Work Against the Dissertation Handbook
\nAddresses credibility, transferability, dependability, and confirmability.
\nShows evidence of quality by discussing how procedures will be\/were
\nfollowed to ensure the accuracy of the data and lessen the impact of researcher
\nbias (e.g., trustworthiness, member checks, triangulation, etc.).
\nTrustworthiness
\n31
\nTIPS
\n\u2022\t Describe threats to the internal and external validity of your study.
\n\u2022\t Address researcher bias.
\n\u2022\t Address transferability.
\nEthical Concerns
\n(This is the main heading for this section)
\nBackground Reading for This Section
\nChapter 13 in the Field Guide
\nSection 11.6 in the Field Guide
\nSection 12.5 in the Field Guide
\nEthics have always been an important consideration when doing research and are regulated
\nby law and ethical standards. Creswell (2013) suggested that ethical concerns need to be
\nconsidered throughout the process of doing research. He suggested that prior to conducting
\nthe research, it is important to seek approval from the IRB and to gain permission from an
\nexternal institution to solicit participants. You must select an institution that has no vested
\ninterest in the study\u2019s outcome so the researcher is not swayed in a particular direction.
\nWhen beginning to conduct the research. disclose the purpose of the study clearly and do not
\npressure participants to sign the informed consent form. Creswell (2013) also noted that it
\nis important to be aware of cultural norms and the needs of any vulnerable populations that
\nmay be part of the research.
\nDuring the actual data collection, cause as little disruption as possible. Avoid deception and
\nbe aware of the power imbalance that is inherent in the positions of the researcher and the
\nparticipant, and avoid any exploitation.
\nIn the analysis phase maintain objectivity and present all data, not just what will support
\nyour view. Respect the privacy of participants and do not divulge any information that might
\nidentify participants.
\nIn the reporting phase do not falsify data, analysis, or conclusions. Falsifying data can lead
\nto very unfortunate consequences for both the researcher and the community. Do not disclose information that could hurt others, and do not plagiarize any part of your research or
\nanalysis.
\nInformed consent. Mandel and Parija (2014) pointed out that informed consent is the bond
\nof trust between the researcher and the participants. It is the single most important aspect of
\nany good research because it assures the participants that their well-being will be protected
\nand that they have self-determination in terms of participating in the research. In obtaining
\nfrom the Research Review Board
\n32
\ninformed consent from participants, there are several things to consider. First, the language
\nof the informed consent must be clear and written in a way that the potential participants can
\nunderstand. If you are working with someone from a different culture or for whom English is
\na second language, make certain that the person can understand what the informed consent
\nform says. Likewise, if you are working with someone who may be impaired cognitively, be
\ncertain that this person has the capacity to understand and sign the informed consent. Weiss
\nRoberts (2002) suggested that the researcher must consider several factors when seeking
\ninformed consent: developmental factors, illness related factors, psychological issues and cultural and religious values, and external pressures.
\nThe informed consent form must include specific items. The Common Rule (1991) regulates
\ninformed consent. Subpart A, section 46.116 of Protection of Human Subjects (1974\/2009)
\nrequires communicating the following general informed consent requirements to study subjects as applicable:
\n\u2022\t Potential risks.
\n\u2022\t Benefits for study participants.
\n\u2022\t A statement of the time frame in which the data will remain confidential.
\n\u2022\t Contact information.
\n\u2022\t A statement that participation is voluntary.
\n\u2022\t A statement that refusal to participate will not result in any penalties or adverse
\neffects.
\n\u2022\t A statement that study participants may discontinue participation at any time and
\nhow they may discontinue participation.
\nWhen writing the informed consent section of Chapter 3, address all the issues listed above.
\nClearly describe how you will obtain informed consent from your subjects, and obtain consent prior to collecting any data.
\nIn addition, explain how you will protect your subjects from any harm. It is important to carefully consider the potential for any harm resulting from the research. Something that might
\nseem quite innocent could, in fact, cause harm. For example, you might be doing a study on
\nobesity in adolescents. In your study you want to find out what factors might contribute to
\nobesity in that group. Although your questions may seem quite innocuous, they could cause
\nundue stress for an adolescent who has fought to lose weight for several years and has been
\nthe object of bullying because of weight issues. Remember, it is the researcher\u2019s responsibility
\nto protect the participants, so you must carefully consider any potential harm and how you
\nwill mitigate it.
\nDeception and concealment are generally frowned upon in research. However, sometimes
\ndeception is necessary. If deception or concealment are used, the researcher must take time
\nto debrief participants and explain the nature of the deception after the data is collected.
\n33
\nCritical Points to Address for This Section
\nThere are three main parts for the section on informed consent. First explain what is in
\nthe informed consent form. Also indicate which appendix the informed consent form is in.
\nNext explain exactly how you will distribute the informed consent form and secure participant signatures. The signature must be secured prior to data collection.
\nFinally discuss any issues regarding data collection that might prove harmful to your
\nclients and discuss how you have addressed them in the informed consent form.
\nConsiderations for Alignment
\n\u2022\t Must align with research method and design.
\nSuggested Resources for Enrichment
\nAmerican Psychological Association. (2010). Publication manual of the American Psychological Association (6th ed.). Washington, DC: Author.
\nCreswell, J. (2013). Qualitative inquiry & research design: Choosing among five
\napproaches (3rd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
\nLincoln, Y. S. (2009). Ethical practices in qualitative research. In D. M. Mertens & D. E.
\nGinsberg (Eds), The handbook of social research ethics (pp. 150\u2013169). Los Angeles,
\nCA: Sage.
\nMandel, J., & Parija, S. C. (2014). Informed consent in research. Tropical Parasitology,
\n4(2), 78\u201379.
\nMiller, T., Birch, M., Mauthner, M., & Jessop, J. (2012). Ethics in qualitative research.
\nThousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
\nWeiss Roberts, L., (2002). Informed consent and the capacity for voluntarism. Psychiatry, 159, 705\u2013712.
\nWrite Your Dissertation
\nIn your dissertation draft, please write the section on informed consent,
\naddressing each of the following points:
\n\u2022\t Explain how you will distribute informed consent forms and secure participant
\nsignatures.
\n(Cont.)
\n34
\nWrite Your Dissertation (cont.)
\nAddress how you intend to maintain confidentiality.
\nBackground Reading for This Section
\nSection 12.5 in the Field Guide
\nChapter 13 in the Field Guide
\nConfidentiality. Confidentiality is another important consideration in qualitative research.
\nNever use the name of an organization as the site for your research unless given written consent to do so. Generally, it is better to simply describe the organization rather than actually
\nnaming it. Your participants must also be identified but not by name.
\nSaunders, Kitzinger, and Kitzinger (2014) pointed out how difficult maintaining anonymity
\nis especially when gathering data in a small setting or with a specific group of people. Many
\nresearchers use an alphanumeric coding system that can identify the group to which the person belongs but not the actual person. For example, you may use a code in which the first
\nnumber depicts the number of the interview, the second letter depicts the group the person
\nbelongs to, and the third depicts gender. Thus, if you were interviewing managers and employees at a company, your first interview might be 1MF to denote the first interviewee, who was
\na manager and female. The next would be 2EM, indicating that the second participant was an
\nemployee and male. This code would be used for all data collected and would also be given
\nto the participant. If the participant decides to withdraw from the research, the participant
\nwould simply give their alphanumeric code to the researcher, who could then access the data
\nassociated with this code. Another approach might be to ask the participant to provide a PIN
\nthat they devise and record on the informed consent form. All data collected would be identified only by the PIN provided.
\n\u2022\t Make certain that all elements of the informed consent are explained and
\nthat a copy of the informed consent form is in an appendix:
\n\u00b0 potential risks;
\n\u00b0 benefits for study participants;
\n\u00b0 a statement of the time frame in which the data will remain
\nconfidential;
\n\u00b0 contact information;
\n\u00b0 a statement that participation is voluntary;
\n\u00b0 a statement that refusal to participate will not result in any penalties
\nor adverse effects; and
\n\u00b0 a statement that study participants may discontinue participation at
\nany time and how they may discontinue participation.
\n\u2022\t Explain how you will protect your participants from any harm.
\nRemember: Ensure that your writing is cohesive. The ideas should flow logically and
\nwith appropriate transitions between sentences.
\n35
\nCritical Points to Address for This Section
\nIn this section you should discuss how you will maintain anonymity for your participants. Issues such as using a PIN or other ways to identify the data should be discussed.
\nYou should clearly explain any type of coding you might be using to identify participants
\non the research data. In addition, how you will maintain anonymity in the research setting if you are conducting interviews at a place of work needs to be discussed.
\nIn addition, you must discuss how you will keep the data confidential. This includes
\nwhere you will store your data and how it will be destroyed after the dissertation is
\ncompleted. Your data should only be accessible to you and should be destroyed three
\nyears after the dissertation is completed.
\nConsiderations for Alignment
\n\u2022\t Ethical issues should be considered in all aspects of the dissertation.
\nSuggested Resources for Enrichment
\nKaiser, K. (2009). Respecting respondent confidentiality in qualitative research. Qualitative Health Research, 19(11), 1632\u20131641.
\nPetrova, E., Dewing, J. Camilleri, M. (2014). Confidentiality in participatory research:
\nChallenges from one study. Nursing Ethics, 1\u201313. Retrieved from http:\/\/nej.sagepub.com.contentproxy.phoenix.edu\/content\/early\/2014\/12\/29\/0969733014564
\n909.full.pdf+html
\nSaunders, B., Kitzinger, J., Kitzinger, C. (2014). Anonymising interview data:
\nChallenges and compromise in practice. Qualitative Research, 1\u201317.
\ndoi:10.1177\/1468794114550439
\nThe concept of confidentiality goes beyond protecting the names of the participants. It is also
\nimportant to consider how you will protect your data, both in its written form and on your
\ncomputer. All written data must be kept in a locked file cabinet that is only accessible to the
\nresearcher. Your computer files should be password protected. Anything stored in a cloud
\ndatabase should be encrypted. Your informed consent, which identifies the names of your
\nparticipants, must be stored separately from your data.
\nResearch material is generally kept for three years after completion of the dissertation. Following this three-year period, the researcher must destroy the data so that it cannot be copied or used by anyone else. Clearly explain how your data will be destroyed.
\n36
\nWrite Your Dissertation
\nIn your dissertation draft, write your section on confidentiality, addressing each
\nof the following points:
\n\u2022\t Method by which you will maintain anonymity of participants.
\n\u2022\t How you will store your data.
\n\u2022\t How and when data will be destroyed.
\nRemember: Ensure that your writing is cohesive. The ideas should flow logically and with
\nappropriate transitions between sentences.
\nAdditional issues to consider. Remember that there is an imbalance of power between the
\nresearcher and the participant. The notion that the researcher has power over study participants was made very clear in the famous Milgram experiments. In this study the researchers
\nwere able to convince participants to administer shocks, ranging from mild to lethal, in a
\nsupposed learning experiment. The participants assumed the researchers knew best and did
\nwhat they were told rather than doing what they felt comfortable doing.
\nBecause you hold more power, it is your responsibility as the researcher to keep your participants safe. This is especially true when working with a protected class who may not be able to
\ngive true informed consent, such as prisoners or children. Also be careful that your questions
\nare worded so that they will not hurt or offend anyone. When dealing with sensitive material,
\nconsider how you will deal with your participants if they become uncomfortable as a result
\nof your questions.
\nWrite Your Dissertation
\nNow write your section on ethical concerns by combining the sections above into
\none coherent whole.
\nEthical Concerns
\n\u2022\t Informed consent: Explain how you will distribute an informed consent form
\nand secure participant signatures.
\n\u2022\t Make certain that all elements of the informed consent form are explained and
\nthat a copy is in an appendix:
\n\u00b0 potential risks;
\n\u00b0 benefits for study participants;
\n\u00b0 a statement of the time frame that the data will remain confidential;
\n\u00b0 contact information;
\n\u00b0 a statement that participation is voluntary;
\n\u00b0 a statement that refusal to participate will not result in any penalties or
\nadverse effects;
\n\u00b0 a statement that study participants may discontinue participation at any
\ntime and how they may discontinue participation.
\n(Cont.)
\n37
\n\u2022\t Clearly describe all processes and procedures, keeping ethical concerns in
\nmind.
\nSelf-Check Your Work Against the Dissertation Field Guide
\nProvides adequate measures for ethical protection of participants.
\nIncludes detailed information about the informed consent process and how
\ninformed consent will be obtained.
\nIncludes informed consent letter in appendix.
\nIncludes detailed information about how confidentiality is addressed.
\nfrom the Research Review Board
\nWrite Your Dissertation (cont.)
\n\u2022\t Explain how you will protect your participants from harm.
\n\u2022\t Confidentiality:
\n\u00b0 method by which you will maintain anonymity of participants;
\n\u00b0 how you will store your data;
\n\u00b0 how and when data will be destroyed.
\nRemember: Ensure that your writing is cohesive. The ideas should flow logically and with
\nappropriate transitions between sentences.
\nEthical Concerns
\nData Analysis
\n(This is a main heading)
\nBackground Reading for This Section
\nSection 12.8 in the Field Guide
\nData analysis in qualitative research is difficult\u2014generally there is a lot of data that must be
\nanalyzed and different units of analysis. In addition, data analysis is not the same from one
\nqualitative design to the next. Moustakas (1994) outlined the modified Van Kaam for phenomenological studies. Yin (2014)provided information on how to analyze case study data.
\nTIPS
\n38
\nCritical Points to Address for This Section
\nIn this section detail exactly how you will analyze your data after it is collected. Discuss
\nthe steps you will take to aggregate and code your data and how you will derive themes
\nfrom the results. If you are using a computer program such as NVivo, it is not enough
\nto say that you will use this program. You must give a detailed description of exactly
\nhow you will use the program. If there are discrepant cases, you must explain how you
\nwill deal with them. Also address how your analysis will be aligned with the research
\nquestions.
\nCreswell (2013) provided some ideas for the various types of data analysis. Generally qualitative researchers complete the first steps of data analysis as they collect the data rather than
\nwaiting until all of it is collected. This makes it easier to analyze the data and also helps them
\nto know when data saturation has occurred.
\nThere are several steps to analyzing case study data. First, organize the data into specific
\nunits, words, or sentences. You can use computer programs such as NVivo or Dedoose to organize your data.
\nIn the next phase of analysis, read over the transcripts to get a general idea of the major
\nthemes or ideas that emerge. As you read, write notes in the margins so that you can go back
\nto see which themes emerge from your reading.
\nIn the next phase of analysis, coding, aggregate the text or visual data into categories of information. In this phase code the main ideas from the various sources of data and then label
\nthose that form the aggregate.
\nIn the next phase review the aggregated codes and look for categories or themes. These
\nthemes, according to Creswell (2013), are broad units of information that consist of several
\ncodes that form a common idea.
\nComputer programs such as NVivo and Dedoose\u2014there are several others\u2014can help with
\nanalysis. If you plan to use one of these programs, download the program ahead of time and
\nto take the tutorials available for them. Generally, the programs provides a trial period to get
\nproficient with it. With most programs, you can upload your transcript and the program will
\nfind the words, sentences and sub-sentences or nodes for you.
\n39
\nConsiderations for Alignment
\n\u2022\t Analysis of the data must be aligned with the research method and design.
\n\u2022\t Must align with research questions so they can be answered.
\nSuggested Resources for Enrichment
\nChanail, R. (2012). Conducting qualitative data analysis: Reading line by line but analyzing by meaningful qualitative units. The Qualitative Report, 17(1), 266\u2013269.
\nCreswell, J. (2013). Qualitative inquiry & research design: Choosing among five approaches
\n(3rd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
\nElo, S., Kaariainen, M., Kanste, O., Polkki, T., Utriainen, K., & Kyngas, H. (2014). Qualitative content analysis: A focus on trustworthiness. doi:10.1177\/2158244014522633.
\nMiles, M., Huberman, M., & Saldana, J. (2014). Qualitative data analysis: A methods
\nsourcebook. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
\nYin, R. (2014). Case study research: Design and methods (5th ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA:
\nSage.
\nWrite Your Dissertation
\nIn your draft dissertation, write your section on data analysis, addressing
\neach of the following points:
\n\u2022\t Articulate clearly how and when your data will be analyzed.
\n\u2022\t Align the data analysis plan with your research design to answer the research
\nquestions.
\n\u2022\t Describe how you will deal with discrepant cases.
\n\u2022\t If using a software program, clearly describe how it will be used.
\n\u2022\t Provide details about how you will code the data and how you will develop
\nyour themes or categories.
\nRemember: Ensure that your writing is cohesive. The ideas should flow logically and with
\nappropriate transitions between sentences.
\n(Cont.)
\nSelf-Check Your Work Against the Dissertation Field Guide
\nArticulates how and when the data will be or were analyzed.
\nAligns the detailed data analysis plan with the specific research design to
\ngeneate answers to the research questions.
\nData Analysis
\n40
\nTIPS
\n\u2022\t Make sure your data analysis plan is clear, appropriate, and
\naligned with your specific research design, research questions, and
\nhypotheses.
\nSummary
\n(This is a main heading)
\nBackground Reading for This Section
\nThe summary provides a short, concise summary of what was included in Chapter 3 and
\nintroduces the content of Chapter 4. The summary should not include any new information
\nor quotations.
\nCritical Points to Address for This Section
\nIn the summary, you summarize what is in Chapter 3. Do not add any new information.
\nYour summary should be short and concise. At the end of the summary, add a paragraph
\nindicating what will be in Chapter 4. Remember, Chapter 4 is your results section, so
\nsimply indicate that Chapter 4 will include the results of your research.
\nSelf-Check Your Work Against the Dissertation Field Guide (cont.)
\nDescribes procedures for dealing with discrepant cases.
\nIf a software program was used to aid analysis, clearly describes how it was
\nused.
\nGives details about the coding procedure and how themes or categories were
\ndeveloped.
\nfrom the Research Review Board
\nConsiderations for Alignment
\n\u2022\t Your summary should align with all the sections of the chapter.
\n41
\nWrite Your Dissertation
\nIn your dissertation draft, write your summary, addressing each of the points listed
\nbelow.
\n\u2022\t Summarize main points of chapter.
\n\u2022\t Introduce Chapter 4.
\nRemember: Ensure that your writing is cohesive. The ideas should flow logically and with
\nappropriate transitions between sentences.
\nChapter 3 should be 10 to 25 pages long. Assemble all sections you wrote for this workbook into one coherent whole.
\nSelf-Check Your Work Against the Dissertation Field Guide
\nSummarizes key points in the chapter.
\nBridges to Chapter 4.
\nConforms to the recommended length of 10 to 25 pages for Chapter 3.
\nSummary
\n42
\n43<\/p>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"
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